4 - First Two Years (Ch. 3 -6) PDF

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Professor: Christina Parker...

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The First Two Years: Ch. 3 – 6 Assigned Readings: pg. 82, “Social Issues: Health”; pg. 99, “Cultural Influences”; pg. 126, “Social Issues: Education”

I.

Physical Development - Chapter 3 (pgs. 81 – 88) & Chapter 4 Biosocial Development a. Significant body changes over the first 2 years:

b. Physical Growth i. Average weight 1. at birth: 2. by age two: ii. Average height 1. at birth: 2. by age 2: iii. Norm – an average or standard measurement for a particular population iv. Percentile – point on a ranking scale from 0 to 100 v. Infant weight increase is mostly fat that provides insulation for warmth & storage of nutrients vi. Effects of Neglect/Malnutrition: 1. Head-sparing – c. Sleep i. Newborns sleep approximately __________ hrs. a day ii. Sleep correlates with:

iii. Sleep patterns are affected by:

1. Mao et al. (2004) Co-sleeping Study II.

Brain Development a. infants born with proportionally large skulls because brain is already __________ of its adult weight at birth

b. head circumference increases approximately _________ in first year . c. Forebrain – 1. Cerebral cortex – _______________ portion of the brain; 80% of brain material in cortex a. Thinking, perception, language, problem solving b. Four main areas: i. Occipital lobe – ii. Temporal lobe – iii. Parietal lobe – iv. Frontal lobe – 1. Phineas Gage a. Damage to left frontal lobe & prefrontal cortex b. What changed about Phineas?

c.

Neurons – brain’s basic communication system; nerve cells i. At birth we have all the neurons we are going to have ii. Neurons are connected to other neurons by intricate networks of nerve fibers called __________ & __________

iii. At birth you have more __________ than you need, but less __________ than you will need iv. Why does the brain triple in size during the first 2 years? v. Dendrites are making connections between neurons & different parts of the brain vi. Transient exuberance - rapid __________ in the number of __________ allowing neurons to become connected & communicate with neurons in other parts of the brain vii. Pruning – d. Experience & Brain Development i. __________ helps shape the brain

ii. What happens to connections that are not used? 1. example - Blindfolded kittens iii. Connections that are used will become __________ iv. Greenaugh (1987) broke brain functions into two categories: 1. Experience-expectant – brain functions that require basic common experiences in order to develop normally a. These common experiences __________ happen for normal brain maturation to occur b. Almost all infants have these common experiences c. Examples:

d. Pruning in visual & auditory cortexes:

2. Experience-dependent – brain functions that depends on the individual's exposure to particular variable experiences a. Vary by culture, family, surroundings b. These experiences __________ happen c. Why individual brains vary in how they are structured and the connections they make d. Examples -

e. What are the implications for caregivers?

i. Brain development follows a sequence ii. What happens if an infant is over stimulated?

iii. What happens if an infant is under stimulated?

1. Self-righting – 2. Plasticity – a. Blind from birth: b. Damage to areas of the brain: iv. Even though brains exhibit plasticity, still have _______________ periods of development 1. Examples: a. Rat studies

b. Romanian orphans in 1980s

III.

Senses & Motor Skills a. What is the difference between a sensation & a perception?

b. At birth all senses are functioning, but to varying degrees c. What 3 major goals are accomplished through the senses?

d. Hearing/Listening i. How well developed is the sense of hearing at birth? ii. iii. iv. v.

Particularly sensitive to human _______________ Will turn head towards sounds Sudden noises will startle Rhythmic noises such as lullaby or heartbeat will soothe

e. Vision i. How well developed is the sense of sight at birth? ii. Newborns are legally blind seeing objects only 4 – 30 inches away iii. By 12 moths:

iv. Binocular vision – ability to focus both eyes in a _______________ manner on an image 1. When does binocular vision develop?

v. What do infant like to look at and focus on?

f. Tasting, smelling, & touching

e. Reflexes a. Motor skills – _______________ ability to move & control some part of the body 1. Cephalocaudal: growth proceeds from _______________ a. examples: 2. Proximal-distal: growth proceeds from _______________ outward a. examples:

b. Reflex – _______________ movement that seems automatic, occurring in reaction to a stimulus; occurs before learning has taken place c. Infant’s first motor movements are reflexes Survival Reflexes

Reflex Breathing

Stimulus/Action Begins in newborn before the umbilical cord is cut

Thrashing

In response to something covering infant’s face, the infant will move arms & legs about to escape

Shiver

In response to drop in body temperature, infants will shiver to keep themselves warm

Sucking

In response to inserting a finger or nipple into its mouth, the infant begins rhythmically sucking.

Rooting

In response to stroking its cheek, the infant turns its head toward the touch and attempts to suck.

Other Reflexes

Reflex Blinking

Stimulus/Action In response to a puff of air, the infant closes both eyes.

Babinski

In response to stroking the side of its foot, the infant twists its foot inward and fans out its toes.

Grasping

In response to an object pressed against its palm, the infant attempts to grasp the object.

Moro

In response to a shock or loud noise, the infant arches its back and throws its arms outward.

Stepping

In response to holding the infant so that its feet barely touch a surface, the infant “walks.”

Babkin

In response to stroking its forehead, the infant turns its head and opens its mouth.

Plantar

In response to touching the ball of the foot, the infant curls its toes under.

f. Gross Motor Skills – deliberate action that involves _______________ of many body parts; physical abilities involving large body movement such as walking & jumping a. Emerge from _______________ (ex. Swimming reflex & crawling) (pg. 107, table 4.2 for additional milestones) Sitting Crawling Walking while holding on Standing momentarily Walking unassisted

g. Fine motor skills – physical abilities involving small body movements a. Examples: b. Newborns have grasping reflex but no hand control

Touch objects, but can’t grasp & hold unless put in their hands Reach & Grasp for short period of time Reach & Grasp & hold most any object; hold bottle, shake rattle, etc. Pincer grasp

Utensils h. Variations in Acquiring Skills a. Culture i. Bali, Indonesia –

ii. African Ivory Coast –

b. Genes can play a role i. African Americans – c. Pattern of slow development requires examination as it could be an indication that the infant is MR, ill, or neglected IV.

Public Heath Measures a. Immunization –

i. One of the greatest impacts on reducing death ii. Protects from disease & associated problems iii. Protects those who might have weakened immune system iv. MMR & Autism controversy (see additional readings on Moodle & in back of the text) 1. Is there scientific evidence to support?

2. Andrew Wakefield

3. Why the increase in autism?

4. Japanese Study -

b. Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) – situation when healthy infant, at least 2 months old, suddenly stops breathing & dies unexpectedly in sleep i. Differs by culture ii. Rate of SIDS has been cut in half in US iii. Cause unknown. but thought that infants do not automatically rouse themselves to breath when their blood oxygen level falls resulting in death iv. Risk Factors:

v. Protective Factors:

vi. New research shows structural brain differences:

vii. ‘Baby Boxes’ to promote safe sleep

c. Breast-feeding (see Moodle for additional readings) i. Breast milk – high calorie fluid secreted by the breast at the birth of an infant ii. Benefits:

iii. When might breastfeeding not be recommended?

iv. Recommended until infant is __________ months v. At 6 months begin adding things like cereals & bananas d. Malnutrition i. Protein-caloric malnutrition – condition when person does not consume sufficient food & nutrients ii. Impacts brain development iii. No body reserves to protect against common diseases iv. Makes childhood disease more lethal v. Types

1. Marasmus – malnutrition during infancy, causing growth to stop, body tissues to waste away, & eventually leads to death 2. Kwashiorkor – chronic malnutrition in childhood; child’s growth is retarded; liver is damaged, immune system weakened, face, legs, & abdomen swell with fluid, energy level reduced, hair becomes brittle & thin

Cognitive Development – Ch. 5 I.

Major Cognitive Accomplishments:

II.

Piaget’s Stage Theory a. Sensorimotor (birth – 2 yrs.) – Use senses & motor abilities to understand world b. active interaction between the brain & senses c. Circular reaction – i. Primary circular rxns – ii. Secondary circular rxns – iii. Tertiary circular rxns – d. Six Stage within Sensorimotor Intelligence

Stage

Infant Age

Characteristics

1

Birth – 1mon.

2

1-4 mon.

First acquired adaptations: accommodation & coordination of reflexes

3

4-8 mon.

Awareness of people & objects

4

8-12 mon.

New adaptation & anticipation

5

12-18 mon.

New means through active experimentation

6

18-24 mon.

New means through mental combinations

Reflexes

e. Primary circular reactions i. Stage 1 (Reflexes)

ii. Stage 2 (First acquired adaptations)

f. Secondary circular reactions i. Stage 3 (Awareness of people & objects)

ii. Stage 4 (New adaptation & anticipation) 1. Object permanence (see also experiment pg. 122, figure 5.1) g. Tertiary Circular reactions

i. Stage 5 (active experimentation)

ii. Stage 6 (new means through mental combinations)

1. Deferred Imitation

h. New Research Methods i. Habituation - process of getting used to an experience through repeated exposure to it 1. examples: ii. fMRI – (functional magnetic resonance imaging) electrical activity w/in the brain is recorded indicating the neurons are firing leading researchers to believe a stimulus has been noticed & processed III.

Information Processing Theory a. Information Processing Theory – b. Information processing begins with input picked up by our 5 senses, then proceeds to brain reactions, connections, & stored memories, and is followed by output being some action such as a word or gesture c. Examples:

d. Affordances –

e. Which affordance is acted upon depends on: i. Sensory awareness ii. Immediate motivation iii. Current development iv. Past experience f. Visual Cliff Experiment (Gibson & Walk, 1960)

g. Movement & People i. Dynamic perception – ii. People preference – iii. Examples:

IV.

Memory a. Requires certain amount of ____________ & _____________ b. Young infants can remember under certain circumstances: i. ii. iii. 1. Ribbon experiment by Rovee-Collier (1987, 1990)

c. Reminder session – any perceptual experience that is intended to help person recollect an idea, thing, or experience i. Ribbon experiment d. More memory

e. Two types of memory i. Implicit memory – ii. Explicit memory – iii. What type of memory do you think comes first? iv. Why don’t you have memories from your infant/toddler years? V.

Language a. Varies between children b. Begins in final prenatal months i. What is the difference between receptive language and productive language?

c. Is it better to speak to infants as adults or use baby talk? i. Child-directed speech (aka infant-directed speech) –

Age

Means of Communication

Newborn

Reflexive communication – crying, facial expressions

3 – 4 mon

Cooing

6 – 10 mon

Babbling

10 – 12 mon

Comprehension of simple words, speech-like imitation; vocalization that has meaning to those who know infant well; receptive language

12 mon

First spoken words that are understood

18 mon

Vocabulary spurt – 3 or more new words learned per day

21 mon

First 2-word sentence

24 mon

Multiword sentences

d. Babbling – i. Experience-expectant ii. Toward end of 1st year begins to sound like their native language e. Sign Language (see also Moodle reading on infant gesturing) i. Can easily sign before they can speak – gestures come much sooner than verbalizations ii. Have better control over their hands before their mouths iii. Allows baby to communicate their needs & parents to understand their needs iv. Do you think using sign language would hinder vocal language development? f. Naming Explosion i. Once the infant’s vocabulary reaches approximately ________ words there is a language spurt ii. Naming explosion –

iii. Begin learning at a rate of 50 – 100 new words per month iv. What usually is an infant’s first word(s)? v. Cultural differences 1. Ratio of nouns, verbs, & adjectives a. English speakers: b. Chinese & Korean speakers: c. Italian & Spanish speakers: g. Sentences i. Holophrase –

ii. Grammar – 1. correlates with the size of the child’s vocabulary & comprehension

iii. 2 Word Sentences 1. Approximately 21 months infants begin speaking in 2-word sentences 2. Usually in correct _______________

iv. 3 Word Sentences 1. Approximately 24 months begin forming 3-word sentences, usually in ____________________________________ order v. Bilingual Children 1. Do you think children who live in a family that is bilingual experience a more difficult time learning language?

VI.

Theories of Language Acquisition a. ______________: Infants need to be taught

b. ______________: Infants teach themselves; naturally understand language

c. ______________: Social Impulses Foster Infant Language

Socioemotional Development - Chapter 6 I.

Psychosocial Accomplishments in Emotional Development

a. During the First Year i. __________ – social smile ii. __________ – laughter & curiosity iii. __________ – anger iv. __________ – fear 1. ____________________ – when an infant no longer smiles at any friendly face, & cries if unfamiliar person moves too close 2. ____________________ – expressed in tears, dismay, or anger when familiar caregiver leaves a. At what age does separation anxiety begin to subside? i. Three Stages 1. protest 2. despair 3. detachment b. During the Second Year: i. Anger & fear decrease & become more focused ii. Laughing & crying become more discriminating iii. __________ – experience pride, shame, embarrassment & guilt iv. ____________________ & ____________________ teaches which emotional reactions are acceptable & which ones are not v. _______________ – realization that you are separate, distinct person from other people 1. Begins emerging around __________ 2. Mirror experiment Lewis & Brooks (1978)

vi. Self-recognition emerges about 18 months around the same time as pretending (imagination) & the use of first person nouns vii. Toddlers’ self-esteem seems to result more from _______________ than praise 1. Kelley et al. (2000) study:

II.

Theories of Emotional & Personality Development a. Psychoanalytic Theory i. Emphasizes the role of the _______________ ii. Freud – oral & anal stages

iii. Erickson 1. Trust vs. Mistrust:

2. Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt:

b. Behaviorism i. Watson & Bandura ii. Emotions & personality formed as parents _____________ or _____________ the child’s spontaneous behaviors

iii. Social learning – observational learning

c. Cognitive Theory i. _______________ & _______________ determine a person’s perspectives ii. Early experiences important because beliefs, perceptions, & memories make them important iii. use family models to build general concept (schema) of what to expect from other people iv. working model –

d. Epigenetic i. Human characteristics are strongly influenced by person’s unique _______________

ii. New York Longitudinal Study (NYLS; 1960’s) – 1. Categorizes Infants: a. Easy (40%) b. Difficult (10%) c. Slow to Warm Up (15%) d. Hard to Classify (35%)

iii. Big Five Personality Traits (OCEAN) (personality test posted on Moodle) 1. Openness – 2. Conscientiousness –

3. Extroversion – 4. Agreeableness – 5. Neuroticism –

iv. Temperament & Caregiving 1. Does temperament change or stay the same throughout life? 2. What is the difference between a state & trait? 3. Parental response -

III.

Social Bonds a. Synchrony – i. From synchrony learn:

ii. First begins with parents imitating infant 1. Example: unhappy infant

iii. Experience-expectant – aids in developing connections within the brain 1. Moms of multiples 2. Romania orphanage 3. Mother’s with PPD iv. Still face technique:

b. Attachment i. Harlow’s work (1959 & 1966) 1. Do infants form bonds with their caregiver(s) because they meet their basic needs?

ii. Ainsworth’s work 1. Influence adult relationships later in life 2. Attachment responses: a. Proximity-seeking behaviors: b. Contact-maintaining behaviors:

iii. Four Types of Attachment Name of Pattern

In Play Room

Mother Leaves

Mother returns

%

Secure

Plays happily

Pauses from play & is not as happy

Welcomes mother & returns to play

50-70%

Insecure-avoidant

Plays happily

Continues playing

Ignores mother

10 -20%

Insecure-resistant

Clings to mother

Unhappy, may stop playing

Angry, may cry, hit mother, 10-20% cling

Disorganized/disoriented

Cautious

Stares or yells; appears Behaves oddly, may freeze, 5-10% scared & confused scream, hit self, throw things

c. Strange situation –

d. Which child is most likely to be from an abusive home?

e. Social Referencing –

i. Begins at approximately _____ months ii. When is social referencing used?

iii. Mealtime example iv. Referencing/Interacting with Parents 1. mom –

2. dad – f. Infant Day Care i. Family day care – ii. Center day care iii. NICHD study

iv. High-Quality Day Care 1. 2. 3. 4. 5....