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Abnormal Psychology Exam One – Ch 1, 2 , 3, 4 , 5

CHAPTER ONE – Abnormal Psychology: Past and Present 1. What is abnormal psychology? a. The scientific study of abnormal behavior in an effort to describe, predict, explain and change abnormal patterns of functioning. b. Workers in the field may be: i. Clinical practitioners ii. Clinical Scientists 2. How is psychology abnormality defined? a. No definition is universally accepted, although most definitions share common features. i. The four D’s: 1. Deviance 2. Distress 3. Dysfunction 4. Danger 3. The four D’s a. Deviance – outside the norm i. From what? 1. From behaviors, thoughts and emotions that differ markedly from a society’s ideas about proper functioning 2. from social norms a. explicit and implicit rules for proper conduct i. explicit (Pedophilic) ii. implicit (elevator ex) ii. Judgement of abnormality also depend on specific circumstances or context. b. Distress – unpleasant and upsetting to the person. i. Limitations: 1. Some might feel distress and not have a mental disorder. c. Dysfunction – interfering with the person’s daily functioning or ability to conduct daily activities in a constructive way. i. Taken within a cultural context ii. Dysfunction alone does not necessarily indicate psychological abnormality d. Danger – posing risk of harm to oneself or others. i. Behavior that is consistently careless, hostile or confused may be placing self or others a risk. ii. This is the exception, rather than the rule; most present no immediate danger. 1. Most people with mental disorders are not dangerous! 4. The Elusive Nature of Abnormality a. Ultimately, each society selects general criteria for defining abnormality and then uses that criteria to judge particular cases. i. From your book, Szasz argued that, because of the influence of culture, the whole concept of mental illness is invalid. 1. Deviations called “abnormal” are “problems of living”

Abnormal Psychology Exam One – Ch 1, 2 , 3, 4 , 5 2. Societies invent the concept of mental illness to better control or change people who threaten social order. b. If we assume that psychology abnormality is a valid concept, we may be unable to apply our definition to one case. i. Ex: diagnosis of alcohol problems in colleges ii. issue of abnormality versus eccentricity 1. eccentricity: chosen, tends to be pleasurable for that person. c. Important – i. Although abnormality generally is defined as behavior that is deviant, distressful, dysfunctional and dangerous, these criteria often are vague and subjective. ii. Few categories of abnormality are as clear-cut as they seem; abnormality often occurs on a continuum, and categorical attempts continue to be debated by clinicians 1. DSM-IV-TR versus DSM-V a. DSM-V – only continuum autism spectrum disorder b. DSM-IV – Asperger ‘syndrome & autism. 5. Current trends in Abnormal Psychology a. In a given year as many as… experience serious psychological disturbances i. 30% of U.S adults ii. 19% of U.S children b. Most clinicians agree that large numbers of people need therapy, and research indicates that therapy often is helpful. 6. What is treatment? a. Treatment, or therapy, is procedure designed to change abnormal behavior into more normal behavior. i. Generally includes 3 components: 1. An individual who seeks relief from a therapists 2. A trained, socially accepted therapists, whose expertise is accepted by the individual and his/her social group. 3. A series of contacts between the therapist and the individual, through which change is produced. b. Outpatient care has now become the primary mode of treatment i. Severe psychopathology: 1. Typically short-term hospitalization, and then outpatient psychotherapy and medication in community settings via the community mental health approach a. Only 40-60% of those with severe disturbances receive treatment of any kind… creates “revolving door” (end up back in hospital) ii. For more moderate psychopathology: 1. In the past, it was once exclusively private psychotherapy 2. Now treatment includes various settings, as well as specialty care. 7. What are today’s leading theories and Professions? a. One of the most important developments in the field of abnormal psychology has been the growth of numerous theoretical perspectives, including;

Abnormal Psychology Exam One – Ch 1, 2 , 3, 4 , 5 i. Psychoanalytic ii. Biological iii. Behavioral iv. Cognitive v. Humanistic-existential vi. Sociocultural b. At present, no single perceptive dominates the clinical field, they complement and conflict. c. One final key development: i. A growing appreciation of need for effective research! d. Clinical research work to determine: i. Which concepts best explain and predict abnormal behavior ii. Which treatments are most effective iii. What kinds of changes may be required. CHAPTER TWO – Research in abnormal Psychology 1. Research – the systematic search for facts through the use of careful observations and investigations. a. Scientific method 2. Only by rigorously testing a theory or technique on representative groups of individuals can clinicians evaluate the accuracy, effectiveness and safety of their ideas and techniques. a. The Scientific method – i. Ongoing – Replication and convergence 1. Replication: run it again (one study is not proof” 2. Convergence: running the study in ‘a different way’ ii. Literary Research 1. Learning “what is known” about the target behavior. iii. Hypothesis Formation 1. Based on library research, propose some “now knowledge” or novel research hypothesis iv. Research Design 1. Determine how to obtain the data to test the research hypothesis. v. Data collection 1. Carrying out the research design and getting the data vi. Data analysis 1. Data collection and statistical analysis vii. Hypothesis Testing 1. based on design properties and statistical results. viii. Draw conclusions 1. Decide how your “new knowledge” changes “what is known” about the target behavior. b. The correlational Method i. Correlation is the degree to which events or characteristics vary with each other. 1. Magnitude: A measure of the strength of a relationship

Abnormal Psychology Exam One – Ch 1, 2 , 3, 4 , 5 2. Direction: As one changes, does the other change is a consistent manner? ii. Correlational data can be graphed and a “line of best fit” can be drawn, indicating direction of the relationship 1. Positive correlation ( slope is upward and to the right) = variables change in the same direction.

a. 2. Negative Correlation (downward slope) = variables change in the opposite direction

a. 3. No correlation ( no slope) = no consistent relationship or correlation. iii. The magnitude (or strength) of a correlation is important 1. High magnitude or strength = variables which vary closely together a. Fall close to the line of best fit!

Abnormal Psychology Exam One – Ch 1, 2 , 3, 4 , 5

2. 3. Low magnitude or strength = variables which do not vary as closely together; a. Variables fall around the line of best fit.

4. iv. Direction and magnitude of a correlation are often calculated numerically 1. Statistic is the “correlation coefficient” symbolized by the letter “r” a. Sign (+/-) or indicates direction b. Number (from 0.00 to 1.00) indicates magnitude with stronger correlations closer to 1.00. v. Advantages: 1. Findings are often generalizable beyond the immediate study (eg, different groups, situations, time) 2. Can repeat (replication) studies on other samples. vi. Limitations 1. Lack of internal validity: a. Internal validity - when investigators are able to rule-out all possible causes of the effect except one – the manipulated variable. 2. Results describe, but do not explain or cause a relationship. c. The Experimental method

Abnormal Psychology Exam One – Ch 1, 2 , 3, 4 , 5 i. An experiment is a research procedure in which a variable is manipulated and the manipulation’s effect on another variable is observed 1. Manipulated variable = independent variable 2. Variable being observed = dependent variable ii. Allows researchers to test hypothesis! iii. Importance of research design: 1. Researchers must eliminate all confounds a. Variables other than the independent variable that may also be affecting the dependent variable. 2. Three features are included in experiments to guard against confounds: a. A control group b. Random assignment c. Masked or double masked design iv. Control group: a group of research participants who are not exposed to the independent variable, but whose experience is similar to that of the experimental group. 1. By comparing the two groups, researchers can better determine the effect of the independent variable. v. Random assignment – 1. Researchers must also watch out for differences in the make-up or characteristics of the experimental and control groups, a. Random assignment: one of a number of selection procedures that ensures that every participant in the experiment is as likely to be placed in one group as another. i. Ex: flip coins, picking names out of a hat. vi. A final confound problem is bias 1. To avoid participation bias: a. Experimenters employ a “masked or blind design” – in which participants are kept from knowing which condition of the study they are in. (experiment or control) i. Eg., placebo strategy 2. to avoid experimenters bias: a. experimenters employ a “double blind design” – both experimenters and participants are kept from knowing which condition of the study participants are in.

Abnormal Psychology Exam One – Ch 1, 2 , 3, 4 , 5 CHAPTER THREE – Models of Abnormality 1. Models of Abnormality a. Perspective used to explain events are known as models or paradigms i. Influence what investigators observe, the questions they ask, the information they seek, and how they interpret this information. b. Historically, clinical scientists of a given place and time tended to agree on a single model of abnormality i. Demonological model: mental illness caused by demons – treatment: prayer. c. Today, several models are used to explain and treat abnormal functioning. i. Biological ii. Psychodynamic iii. Cognitive-Behavioral iv. Human- Existential v. Sociocultural vi. Integrated – combined elements. 2. Biological Model – a. Adopts a medical perspective b. Psychological abnormality is an illness brought about by malfunctioning parts of the organisms. i. Focus – the Brain! c. How do biological theorists explain abnormal behavior? i. Areas of focus and study include – 1. Brain anatomy a. E.g., Huntington’s Disease and loss of cells in basal ganglia and frontal cortex 2. Brain Chemistry – a. Neurotransmitters and hormones i. E.g., dopamine and psychotic symptoms 3. Brain circuitry – a. The network of brain structures and chemicals i. Combination of anatomy and chemistry!! ii. Sources of abnormality per the bio model: 1. Evolution: a. Look at a combination of adaptive behaviors of the past, genes, and the interaction between genes and current environmental events, i. Ex: fear response b. Criticized and still controversial, although model receives considerable attention 2. Genetic Abnormalities a. Inheritance plays a role in several disorders b. In most cases, several genes combine to influence our actions and reactions. d. Biological treatments

Abnormal Psychology Exam One – Ch 1, 2 , 3, 4 , 5 i. Biological practitioners attempt to pinpoint the physical source of dysfunction to determine the course of treatment. ii. Three types of biological treatment: 1. Drug therapy – a. Changed the outlook of mental health treatment following advent in 1950’s 2. Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) a. Used primarily for depression when drugs and other therapies have failed. 3. Neurosurgery a. Only in extreme cases e. Assessing the biological model – i. Strengths – 1. Considerable respect in the field 2. Constantly produces valuable new information 3. Can bring great relief for some ii. Limitations 1. Can limit, rather than enhance, our understanding 2. Treatments produce undesirable (negative) side effects. a. Ex: shaking, bizarre eye movement, etc. 3. The Psychodynamic Model - oldest and most famous model a. A person’s behavior (whether normal or abnormal) is determined largely by underlying dynamic psychological forces of which she/he is not consciously aware. i. Abnormal symptoms are a result of conflict among these forces. b. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) i. Father of psychodynamic theory and psychoanalytic therapy c. How did Freud explain normal and abnormal functioning? i. Shaped by three unconscious forces: 1. Id – guided by pleasure principle (unconscious) a. Instinctual needs, drives and impulses b. Fueled by libido – sexual energy i. devil 2. Ego – guided by the reality Principle (unconscious) a. Seeks gratification, but guides us to know when we can and cannot express our impulses b. Ego defense mechanisms protect us. i. Balances unconscious conflicts and keeps them in the unconsciousness. 3. Superego (conscience) – considered our moral center and is value- driven a. Conscience; unconsciously adopted from our parents i. Angel ii. Three parts of personality are often in some degree of conflict 1. A healthy persona is one in which compromise exists among the three forces

Abnormal Psychology Exam One – Ch 1, 2 , 3, 4 , 5 2. If the id, ego and superego, are in excessive conflict, the person’s behavior may show sign of dysfunction. iii. Developmental stages 1. Oral (0-18 months) – crying, eating, etc. 2. Anal (18 – 3 years) – potty training 3. Phallic (3 – 5 years) – genitals 4. Latency (5 – 12 years) – attempts for satisfaction 5. Genital (12 – adult hood) – puberty, sexual maturation. iv. At each stage of development, new events and pressures require adjustment in the id, ego and superego 1. If successful  personal growth 2. If unsuccessful  fixation at early developmental stage, leading to psychological abnormality d. Psychodynamic Therapies i. Range from Freudian psychoanalysis to modern therapies ii. BUT, all seek to uncover past trauma and inner conflicts iii. Believe that an understanding of early life experience is critically important. iv. Therapist act as a “subtle guide” v. Various techniques – 1. Free association: a. Technique where a patient describes any thought, feeling, or image that comes to mind. i. Hold up picture, anything come to mind? ii. Up to therapist to interpret. 2. Therapist interpretation a. Resistance i. An unconscious refusal to participate fully in therapy. b. Transference – i. According to psychodynamic theorists, redirection toward the psychotherapist of feelings associated with Important figures in a patient’s life, now or past. c. Dream interpretation – i. Dream interpretation 1. Series of ideas and images form during sleep. d. Catharsis – i. Emotional venting; reliving of past repressed feelings in order to settle internal conflicts and overcome problems. e. Working through i. Facing of conflicts, reinterpreting feeling and overcoming one’s problems. 3. Contemporary trends:

Abnormal Psychology Exam One – Ch 1, 2 , 3, 4 , 5 a. Short-term psychodynamic therapies i. Focus on problem, work through issues. b. Relational psychoanalytic therapy i. Therapists also disclose things about themselves – establishes equal grounds. vi. Assessing the psychodynamic model 1. Strengths a. First to recognize importance of psychological theories and treatment. b. Abnormal experiences rooted in the same processes as normal. i. Abnormal – excessive conflicts. c. First to apply theory and techniques systematically to treatment – monumental impact on the field. 2. Limitations a. Difficult to research i. Non-observable (id, ego, superego conflict) ii. Inaccessible to human subject (unconscious) b. Limited research evidence 4. Cognitive- Behavioral Model a. An integrated model based on cognitive and behavioral perspectives i. Focused on elements of human functioning that are readily observable and/ or reportable. ii. Interested in the interplay of thoughts and behaviors, as well as how they impact emotions. iii. tends to be present-focused, empirically-based, action-oriented and structured.

b. c. The behavioral Model - Aims to identify the behaviors that are causing the individual problems. i. Asks “how were these behaviors learned?” ii. the model began in laboratories where conditioning studies were conducted. iii. Several forms of conditioning: 1. Operant conditioning 2. Modeling 3. Classical conditioning

Abnormal Psychology Exam One – Ch 1, 2 , 3, 4 , 5 iv. All may produce normal or abnormal behavior. 1. Understanding how behavior is learned, we can learn something different or change behavior. v. How to behaviorist explain abnormal functioning? 1. Operant conditioning: a. Humans learn to behave in certain ways as a result of receiving rewards (or reinforcement) whenever they do so. b. Positive or negative reinforcement INCREASES the likelihood that the behavior will occur! i. Positive reinforcement (+) : receipt of a positive experience as reward. 1. Ex: give child a sticker after going poo in toilet. ii. Negative reinforcement (-) : removal of a negative experience as reward. 1. Ex: Drinking on a Friday night to remove feelings of stress. 2. Putting on seatbelt to remove of annoying sound. c. Not to be confused with punishment – which decreases the likelihood that the behavior will occur. i. Can be positive or negative. 1. Positive – adding something bad. 2. Negative – removing something desirable. 2. Modeling: individuals learn responses by observing and repeating behavior. 3. Classical Conditioning: learning by temporal association. a. When two events repeatedly occur close together in time, become paired in persons mind and person responds in the same way to both events. b. Ivan Pavlov – study with dogs and meat powder. i.

c. Explains many familiar behaviors (both normal and abnormal) vi. Behavioral Therapies 1. Treatment seeks to replace problem behaviors with more adaptive ones a. We can learn something different or better behaviors!

Abnormal Psychology Exam One – Ch 1, 2 , 3, 4 , 5 b. May use classical conditioning, operant conditioning, or modeling. d. The Cognitive Model – abnormal functioning as a result of cognitive problems or faulty thinking! i. Argues that clinicians must as questions about assumptions, attitudes and thoughts of a client. 1. Faulty assumptions and attitudes a. Ex: Core beliefs: “im worthless” b. We all do this but abnormal functioning do this more often. 2. Illogical thinking processes: a. Ex., Overgeneralization, jumping to conclusions. i. Failed first test, never getting into grad school. ii. Increases neg emotion  neg behaviors 1. Cant only rely on behaviors to tell us about individuals. iii. Cognitive therapies – 1. Treatment seeks to help client change their thinking patterns. 2. Example: Beck’s cognitive therapy a. The goal of therapy is to help clients recognize and challenge their negative thinking. i. Therapists guide clients to challenge their dysfunctional thoughts, try out new interpretations, and apply new ways of thinking in their daily lives. ii. First used in treating depression although now widely applied. e. Assessing the cognitive-behavioral model i. Strengths 1. Very broad appeal (can be tested in lab) 2. Constructs lend themselves to research. 3. Clinically useful and effective 4. Lots of research support for huge range of disorders. ii. Limitations 1. Causality difficult to show 2. Limited effectiveness – it does not help everyone a. Not always possible for clients to rid themselves from negative thinking. 3. Focus is too narrow 5. The humanistic- Existential Model a. Another integrated model i. The existentialist view: 1. Emphasis on self- determination, choice and individual responsibility 2. Focus on authenticity: being your true self. a. Move to authenticity by taking responsibility and fulfil our lives. b. People who shrink from responsibility  mental health issues.

Abnormal Psychology Exam One – Ch 1, 2 , 3, 4 , 5 ii. The humanist view: 1. Emphasis on people as friendly, cooperative, and constructive 2. Focus on drive to self- actualization a. Self- actualization: people fulfill their potential for goodness and growth. 3. Roger’s humanistic theory and therapy b. Rogers’s humanis...