Exam One Study Guide PDF

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very detailed physiology study guide for an upper-level community college course. ...

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Chapter one: Introduction 1. What is physiology? The study of biological function- how the body works, from molecular mechanisms within the cells to the actions of tissues, organs, and systems, and how the organism, as a whole, accomplishes particular tasks essential for life. What is the difference between physiology and anatomy? Anatomy is the study and description of structures involved in life. Physiology takes anatomy’s base of structure and applies the HOW and WHY aspects of life. Physiology deals with the questions and answers involved in cause and effect. The two studies are related because without knowledge of anatomy, you would have no HOW and WHY questions to answer. The structure has lot of to do with the function. a. What are some examples in the human body of the relationship of structure to function? i. Red blood cells are shaped to be flexible and fluid to fit through small capillaries, it also doesn’t have a nucleus in order to carry maximum amounts of oxygen and hemoglobin. ii. The lungs are branches and covered in alveoli and capillaries to create surface area which increases the oxygen absorption, capillaries being right next to alveoli makes for faster abortion. iii. Teeth are strong and some even sharp, in order to tear and chew food iv. The heart has one-way pumps and valves; it also has chambers for blood to go in and out. Both make for very efficient blood in and out of the heart. 2. What are the levels of organization of the human body? ATOM – MOLECULE – CELL – TISSUE – ORGAN – ORGAN SYSTEM – ORGANISM a. Know the definition of each level and examples of each: i. ATOM- the smallest unit of matter that can participate in chemical reactions EX: H (hydrogen), C (carbon) ii. MOLECULE- two or more atoms joined together EX: DNA, H2O, NH3, O2 iii. CELL-the basic structural and functional unit of an organism; capable of performing life’s processes EX: epithelial cell, cardiac cell iv. TISSUE- groups of similarly specialized cells and the substances surrounding them that usually arise from a common ancestor and perform specialized functions. EX: muscle, epithelial, nervous, connective v. ORGAN- structure composed of two or more different tissues, usually all four, and has specific functions. EX: stomach Stomach has mucosa, which are epithelial tissue / submucosa, blood vessels, nerves, and connective tissues / muscularis, the wall of the stomach, muscle tissue / serosa, outer layer made up of connective tissue, epithelial tissue vi. ORGAN SYSTEM- related organs that have a common function, EX: digestive system vii. ORGANISM- collection of structurally and functionally integrated systems, EX: any living individual b. What is a cell and what are its functions? i. CELL: BASIC STRUCTURAL AND FUCNTIONAL UNIT OF AN ORGANISM, capable of performing life’s processes Functions: -obtain food and oxygen from environment -acquire and use energy -eliminate carbon dioxide and wastes -synthesize proteins and cell components (for growth, structure, and cell functions) -control exchange of materials between cell and environment -move materials from one part of cell to another -be sensitive and respond to environmental changes

-reproduce (most cells) Specialized Cell Functions: -Glands – protein synthesizing ability -Kidney cells – control of exchange of material between cell and its environment -Muscle cells – intracellular movement -Nerve cells – detection of and response to environmental changes c. What is a tissue? Cells that have similar functions are grouped into categories called TISSUES (Types, Characteristics, Composition, Functions, and Subtypes) MUSCLE TISSUE: Skeletal, Cardiac, Smooth (contraction and generation of force) Skeletal- generally attached to bones at both ends by means of tendons; hence, contraction produces movements of the skeleton. Separate cells called myoblasts fuse together to form skeletal muscle fibers, or MYOFIBERS. Muscle fibers within a skeletal muscle are arranged in bundles, and within these bundles the fibers extend parallel from end of the bundle to the other. -moves skeleton in relation to external environment -voluntary -striated -multinucleated -most attached to bones Cardiac- it’s striated, but differs markedly from skeletal muscle in appearance, found only in the heart where the MYOCARDIAL c cells are short, branched, and intimately interconnected to form a continuous fabric -pumps blood out of heart -involuntary -striated -short and branched cells connected by intercalated discs -found only in heart Smooth- Do not have the striations of skeletal and cardiac muscle, found in the digestive tract, blood vessels, bronchioles, the ducts of the urinary and reproductive systems. - controls movement of contents through hollow organs and tubes (blood vessels) -involuntary -not striated, have tapered ends -found in digestive tract, blood vessels, bronchioles, and ducts of urinary and reproductive systems EPITHELIAL TISSUE: Simple Epithelia and Stratified Epithelia / Squamous, Cuboidal, Columnar EX: simple squamous (exchange materials between cells and their environment) Simple Epithelia- single layer of cells; function varies with type Simple squamous- single layer of flattened, tightly bound cells; diffusion and filtration Simple cuboidal- single layer of cube-shaped cells; excretion, secretion, or absorption Simple columnar- single layer of nonciliated, tall, column-shaped cells; protection, secretion, and absorption

Simple ciliated columnar- single layer of ciliated, column-shaped cells; transporter role through ciliary motion Pseudostratified ciliated columnar- single layer of ciliated, irregularly shaped cells; many goblet cells; protection, secretion, ciliary movement Stratified Epithelia- two or more layers of cells; function varies with type Stratified squamous- numerous layers containing keratin, with outer layers flattened and dead; protection Stratified squamous (nonkeratinized)- numerous layers lacking keratin, with outer layers moistened and alive; protection and pliability Stratified cuboidal- usually two layers of cube-shaped cells; strengthening of luminal walls Transitional- numerous layers of rounded, nonkeratinized cells; distension Form Membranes: -epithelial sheets which cover all body surfaces and line cavities of every hollow organ -provide barrier between external and internal environments -classified according to number of layers and shape of the cells in upper layers Form secretory glands: -specialized for secreting products produced by cell FUNCTIONS: protection, diffusion, secretion, filtration, excretion, absorption, control of permeability, sensory, reception, synthesis of substances, regulation NERVOUS TISSUE: Composed of Neurons and supporting cells (neuroglia/glia) consists of cells called neurons, specialized for the generation and conduction of electrical events, and neuroglial (glial) cells. Provide the neurons with structural support and perform a variety of functions that are needed for the normal physiology of the nervous system. (initiate and transmit electrical impulses that send information from one part of body to another) Found in: Brain, spinal cord, nerves, special sense organs Cell Body- contains the nucleus and serves as the metabolic center of the cell Dendrites- “branches” are highly branched cytoplasmic extensions of the cell body that receive input from other neurons or from receptor cells. Axon- a single cytoplasmic extension of the cell body that can be quite long, up to a few feet in length, it specializes conductive nerve impulses from the cell boy to another neuron or to an effector (muscle or gland) cell. CONNECTIVE TISSUE: loose, dense, cartilage, bone, blood / large amounts of extracellular material between the different types of connective tissue cells. Extra cellular material called the Matrix varies in the four primary types of connective tissues. (few cells within a lot of extracellular material) Blood- classified as a type of connective tissue since half of its volume is an extracellular fluid, the blood plasma Connective tissue proper (loose and dense) -loose connective tissue- protein fibers composed of collagen are scattered loosely in the ground substance, which provides space for the presence of blood vessels, nerve fibers, and other structures -dense irregular- forming rough capsules and sheaths around organs, contain densely packed collagenous fibers arranged in various orientations that resist forces applied from different directions.

i.

What is the difference between an exocrine and endocrine gland? Know examples -Exocrine Gland: derived from cells of epithelial membranes, secretion of these cells is passed to the outside of the epithelial membranes through ducts. -lacrimal (tear) glands, sebaceous glands (secrete oily sebum into hair follicles), sweat glands -Endocrine Gland: lack ducts and which therefore secrete into capillaries within the body. -hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, reproductive glands, pancreas d. What are all the organ systems of the body? CARDIO – DIGESTIVE – ENDOCRINE – INTEGUMENTARY – LYMPHATIC – MUSCULAR – NERVOUS – RENAL – REPRODUCTIVE – SKELETAL – RESPIRATORY CARDIOVASCULAR: -Structure- Heart, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels -Function- circulates blood and regulates movement of lymph. Circulates blood around the body via heart, arteries, and veins, delivering oxygen and nutrients to organs and carrying their waste products away DIGESTIVE: -Structure- mouth, stomach, intestine, liver, gallbladder, pancreas -Function- Breakdown of food into molecules that enter the body. Mechanical and chemical processes that provide nutrients via the mouth, esophagus, stomach, and intestines. Eliminates waste from the body. ENDOCRINE: -Structure- hormone-secreting glands, such as the pituitary, thyroid, and adrenals -Function- secretion of regulatory molecules called hormones. Provides chemical communications in the body using hormones. INTEGUMENTARY: -Structure- Skin, hair, nails -Function- protection, thermoregulation. Skin, hair, nails, sweat and other exocrine glands LYMPHATIC: -Structure- bone marrow, lymphoid organs -Function- defense of the body against invading pathogens. System comprising a network of lymphatic vessels that carry a clear fluid called lymph. Defends the body against disease-causing agents MUSCULAR: -Structure- skeletal muscles -Function- enables the body to move using muscles, movement of the skeleton NERVOUS: -Structure- brain, spinal cord, nerves -Function- Regulation of other body systems; collects and processes information from the senses via nerves and the brain and tells the muscles to contract to cause physical actions RENAL: -Structure- Kidneys, ureters, urethra -Function- regulation of blood volume and composition; kidneys filter blood

REPRODUCTIVE: -Structure- Gonads, external genitalia, associated glands and ducts -Function- continuation of the human species; sex organs required for the production of offspring RESPIRATORY: -Structure- lungs, airways -Function- lungs and the trachea that bring air into the body; gas exchange SKELETAL: -Structure- bones, cartilages -Function- movement and support; bones supporting the body and its organs 3. What is homeostasis? Internal consistency; maintenance of a relatively stable / constant internal environment; dynamic steady state Within physiological limits; body systems maintain homeostasis a. Factors in internal environment homeostatically regulated include: -concentration of: nutrients, oxygen and carbon dioxide, waste products, water, salts, other electrolytes -pH (blood pH: 7.35-7.45) -Temperature -Volume -Pressure Internal Environment: fluid surrounding cells, -ECF extracellular fluid= interstitial fluid IF + plasma / 35% of total body water -ICF= intracellular fluid / 65% of total body water -External environment of the body: outside of body – inside lumen of digestive tract Homeostasis is essential for cell survival. Body systems maintain homeostasis. Cells make up body systems. b. What is a FEEDBACK LOOP? Network of interconnected body components which maintains a given factor in the internal environment relatively constant around an optimal level Components: receptor, control center, and effector i. Stimulus: disruption that changes a controlled condition Controlled condition: each monitored variable Set point: optimal level ii. Describe the 3 main parts of a feedback loop? (receptor, control center, and effector) what does each do? RECEPTOR (sensor): detects deviations of a controlled condition from normal (set point) and sends input to control center -nerve cells or specialized receptor cells -send information via nerve impulses or chemical signals CONTROL CNTER or INTEGRATOR: sets the range of values within which a controlled condition should be maintained, evaluates input, and generates output commands; determines the response -usually brain or spinal cord -send information via nerve impulses or chemical signals EFFECTOR: receives output and produces a response that changes the controlled condition (organ or tissue)

iii.

-usually a gland or muscle What is a positive and negative feedback loop? POSITIVE feedback loop: strengthens or reinforces (amplifies) a change in a controlled condition; SAME direction -an event outside the system must shut it off; don’t not happen very often EX: normal- contraction of uterus in childbirth, blood clotting / abnormal- heatstroke NEGATIVE feedback loop: change in a homeostatically controlled factor triggers response that moves the factor in the OPPOSITE direction of initial change 1. Be able to describe and draw an example of one type (positive or negative) of feedback loop in the body for a particular variable. a. In your example, identify the name of the specific 3 main parts of the feedback loop (if you choose temperature, the specific control center is the hypothalamus of the brain) b. How do each of the 3 main parts of the feedback loop communicate with each other? c.

Stimulus disrupts Homeostasis

Controlled Condition monitored by

Receptors that send

control center input and output

Effectors bring about change

response that alters controlled condition

C. regulation of homeostasis: regulation of processes within organs can occur in two ways: i. what is intrinsic vs extrinsic regulation? INTRINSIC: (local) within an organ; cells within the organ sense a change and signal to neighboring cells to respond appropriately EXTRINSIC: (systemic) regulatory mechanisms outside an organ; the brain (or other organs) regulates an organ using the endocrine or nervous system -Nervous and endocrine systems regulate most other organ systems -endocrine secretes chemical regulators: hormones -nerve fibers innervate organs (muscles or glands) by producing nerve impulses or releasing neurotransmitters ii. What are the 2 main organ systems in the body that perform extrinsic regulation? Nervous and Endocrine NERVOUS system: controls and coordinates activities requiring FAST responses -especially important in detecting and initiating responses to changes in external environment ENDOCRINE system: through hormone-secreting glands -regulates activities that require DURATION -controls concentration of nutrients -controlling ECF volume and electrolyte composition iii. (the following is showing the rest of the systems roles in homeostasis) CIRULATORY system: -transports materials to all organs; allow for gas and nutrient exchange -helps determine distribution of ECF volume between plasma and IF

DIGESTIVE system: -breaks food into small molecules for absorption into plasma, which distributes them to body cells -transfers water and electrolytes from external environment into internal environment -eliminates undigested food as waste RESPIRATORY system: -obtains O2 from and eliminates CO2 to external environment -helps maintain pH of internal environment LYMPHATIC / IMMUNE system: -defends against foreign invaders and cancerous cells -involved in repair and replacement of injured and old cells URINARY / RENAL system: -primarily responsible for maintaining stability of ECF volume, electrolyte composition, and osmolarity -maintain plasma volume -maintain water and salt balance -maintain osmolarity of body fluids -main route for eliminating potentially toxic metabolic wastes and foreign compounds from the body -help maintain acid-base balance in body fluids SKELETAL systems: -provides support and protection for soft tissues and organs -storage reservoir for calcium -enables movement of body -bone marrow-site of blood cell production MUSCULAR systems: -moves the bones to enable movement of body -generates heat important in temp regulation INTEGUMENTARY systems: -outer protective barrier preventing loss of internal fluid and entry of foreign microorganisms -regulate body temp (through control of sweat production and flow of blood through skin) REPRODUCTIVE systems: -not necessary for homeostasis; necessary for perpetuation of the species iv. What is the significance of the roles of the endocrine and nervous systems? How does each exert its effects? They are the main controlling systems of the body, they control the other systems. Homeostasis is maintained by two general categories of regulatory mechanisms. (1) those that are INTRINSIC or “built into” the organs being regulated, such as molecules produced in the walls of blood vessels that cause vessel dilation or constriction. (2) those that are EXTRINSIC as in regulation of an organ by the nervous and endocrine systems. The endocrine system functions closely with the nervous system in regulating and integrating body processes and maintaining homeostasis. The nervous system controls the secretion of many endocrine glands and some

hormones in turn affect the function of the nervous system. Together, the nervous and endocrine systems regulate the activities of most of the of most of the other systems of the body.

Chapter 2: Chemistry 1. Atoms and Elements a. Elements of the human body i. What are the four main elements of the human body and what percentage do they make up of the body ? C H O N / 96% ii. What are the other major essential elements makeup of the human body? a. 3.6% - Na, Mg, Ca, P, K, S, Cl b. 0.4% - Li, F, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Se, Y, I, Zr, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, La b. Atomic Structure i. Know the charges on each of the three sub-atomic particles and where each of the sub-atomic particles are located in the atom ii. Which two sub-atomic particles contribute to the mass of the atom? Neurons and protons iii. What is the atomic number of an element? Number of protons (e- don’t weight enough to count but the numbers are the same) iv. What is the mass of an element? Sum of protons and neutrons v. Know how to determine the number of protons, electrons, and neutrons an atom has given its atomic number and mass number c. What is an Isotope? Atoms of the same element, but with different numbers of neutrons i. How do isotopes of an element differ from each other? The number of protons define the element - Isotopes of an element have the same atomic number, but the atomic mass is different- have the same chemical properties - Some are radioactive and used in medical testing and physiological research. ii. What are radioisotopes? What is radioactive decay? Radioisotopes: are used in medicine for diagnosis and treatment. EX: PET, nuclear stress test, thyroid cancer. Radiotracers: Fluorodeoxyglucose. Radioactive decay: the spontaneous breakdown of an atomic nucleus which releases excess energy by releasing radiation in the form of alpha, beta, and gamma rays - Alpha and beta: fast moving particles, protons and neutrons, or electrons - Gamma: high energy waves; able to penetrate deeper a. Know examples of radioisotopes (radiotracers) used in medicine and their purpose Ex: what is 131I used for? Fluorine, thallium, and technetium. 131I- is an isotope of iodine that emits radiation- absorbed by bloodstream and concentrated in the thyroid gland, where it begins destroying the gland’s cells. d. Electron energy and configurations i. How are electrons arranged in an atom? Electrons arranged around the nucleus in a series of energy levels (shells). With distance from nucleus, energy levels increase. First sh...