An Introduction to Public Policy Outline PDF

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Chapter 1: Introducing the Policy Process ●

The laws and regulations are a big part, but the social scientific aspects of the policy process ● Politics: a process by which societies help figure out how to organize and regulate themselves (how to govern themselves) ○ What is made as decisions in the home is considered “private policy” - studied by sociologists ● Public Sphere: where decisions are made by the public to address issues that affect people in communities ○ Can be as small as an apartment complex, as big as the nation ● Modern political theory begins w Machiavelli’s The Prince ○ If we are prepared to seize political opportunities, we are more capable of obtaining them ■ Depended on postulates: s tatements about how we think the political world works ● Compared to how real-world politics work ○ The Enlightenment: philosophical movement in which philosophers developed new political / social philosophies based on reason and natural sciences ■ Montesquieu - idea of separation of powers ■ The Federalist #47 - separation of powers ■ Karl Marx + Max Weber - understand how people organize their societies / how the strong can ignore the needs of the weak ● Politics (Laswell): who gets what, when, and how” ○ Competition to get certain resources ○ The need to cooperate to make decisions ○ The nature of political power ● Politics (MW): the art of science of government / political activities characterized by artful and often dishonest practices / the total complex of relations between people living in a society ○ Negative connotation that comes w/ “playing politics” ■ Does policy making serve the general public? ● The Study of Public Policy: how we translate what the proponents of particular actions believe to be popular will into practice What is Public Policy? ● Modern policy studies began in 1922 a. Merriam connects the theory and practice of politics to understanding the actual activities of govt. ● Public Policy a. (1) made in response to some sort of problem that requires attention b. (2) made on the public’s behalf c. (3) oriented toward a goal or desired state, such as the solution of a problem d. (4) ultimately made by govts.

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e. (5) interpreted and implemented by public and private actors who have different interpretations of problems, solutions, and their own motivations f. (6) what the government choose to do or not do Government is at the center of efforts to make public policy Policy: a statement by government of what it intends to do about a public problem a. Can be a law, a regulation, or the set of all the laws and regulations that govern a particular issue area or problem + a broader sweep of politics (who makes decisions) b. Implicit Policy: t he lack of a definitive statement of policy ■ E.g. a right to education ● One cannot argue that the failure of the government to provide edu violates a stated or implicit right c. Policies are revealed through texts, practices, symbols, and discourses that define and deliver values including goods and services / regulations, income, status ■ Policy change can be detected from constitutional change to subtle behavior of “street-level bureaucrats” ● People acting before the law is put in place Problem: a source of perplexity, distress, or vexation a. Largely driven by arguments as to what a “solvable problem” looks like ■ Then how to address and at what cost Classical Liberalism: emphasizes individual liberty and the ownership and acquisition of private property as a means to improve overall wealth and happiness (Expressed in Locke’s Second Treatise of Civil Government ) a. This is the ideology upon which the American political system is based ■ Power derives from the consent of the governed (the people are therefore sovereign - possessing full/supreme power) b. When the government takes actions - it does so in the public interest ■ Many states have PIRGs (public interest research groups) that promote their interpretation of public interest ● Giving free electrical services v. cutting taxes for the poor Public Interest: the assumed broader desires and needs of the public in whose name policy is made a. Not all have the same opinion towards / feelings of intensity for certain policies ■ Many think govt is far removed, but in reality it plays a huge role in day-to-day life b. In the US, every person involved in public policy is a specialist in their own front ■ By delegating to certain people, we lose our voice in policy debates ● “Who participates in making public policy?”

Why do we Study Public Policy? ● A mix of theory and real world applications ○ Scientific knowledge is often greatly increased when both motivations are present

The Place of Public Policy in the Social Sciences ● Interdisciplinary nature of Public Policy is both a strength and a weakness ○ S b/c discipline: a field of academic research/study draws upon the best insights from the natural sciences ○ W b/c policy scientists don’t share a particular language Evidence and Argument in the Policy Process ● Analysis is often undertaken in the name of advocacy ○ Evidence and emotion always take place in policy making decisions DARE ● Negative responses in terms of effectiveness from scientific journals ○ So why is it still used if deemed “ineffective”? ■ People believe it works (placebo) ● For school, the program fills important needs ● The sheer fact that it is “doing something” - gives comfort to the families and police officers ■ What does “work” mean? Overview ● The study of public policy is rooted in political science

Chapter 2: Elements of the Policy Making System 1. Issue Emergence a. Can come about through sudden events (disaster) or advocacy of concerned citizens 2. Agenda Setting a. When an issue gains sufficient attention 3. Alternative Seeking a. Once issue moves up agenda goes to alternative policy responses 4. Enactment a. A law is passed, a regulation is issued, or some other formal decision is reached to take action 5. Implementation a. After decision is reached, policy is implemented 6. Evaluation a. Feedback to the process, where it begins anew ● Policy sometimes doesn’t work in this step by step pattern ● One cannot separate the implementation of a policy from its evaluation The Policy Process as a System

● Systems thinking: a way of thinking about natural or social phenomena as a system in which various inputs into a system are handled, processed and interact with each other to create a set of discernable outputs ● Input-Output Model: assumes a set of policy demands or inputs, which are then processed by the political system into laws, programs, and the goods and services govt. Provides ● Black Box: a system in which the internal workings are unexplained ○ Political Process is influenced by and influences its environment ● Policy Environment: the structural, social, economic, and other factors that influence and are influenced by policy making The Structural Environment ● Separation of Powers: three branches of government ● Federalism: power is shared b/w a central govt and state govt. ● Open Public Meetings Laws: mandate that most public meetings / hearings should be open to the public in decision making ● Administrative Procedure Act: requires regulatory agencies to follow particular procedures in rulemaking ● Freedom of Information Act: allows citizens to gain info ab govt programs ○ ^^^ have opened up govt to scrutiny / greater access to government The Social Environment ● Demographers: people who study the composition of population by looking at different distributions ○ Data influences public policy making ● Slow growth shows that the nation is trending toward an older population ● Growing rates of Hispanic and Black populations in America ● Men w jobs declining, rate at which women are participating in the workforce is climbing ○ Women have gained more access to the job market, and families depend more on a second earner ■ Only in families where women entered the workforce has there been substantial increase in income (180%)m ● Increase in number of women in typically male centric professions ● Where do these changes matter? ○ The Workforce ■ As pop grows older, more people will be drawing social security / old age benefits ● Early retirement is driven by trends in private wealth and income security

○ Bc of 2008 recession, many have decided to work past retirement age of 65 ■ Aging population will demand more / more expensive health care services ○ Immigration ■ US grows at a faster rate bc of higher birth rate (immigrants) and flow of immigrants ■ Policy must balance between encouraging immigration to ensure pop growth + economic benefits continue ○ Intermarriage ■ The rate of assimilation of asian immigrants is low ● Language barriers can make gaining work or an education more challenging ■ Income disparities between whites and non-white is ever growing ● Homeownership (major policy goal in US) is difficult to achieve for minorities ■ Policy needs to consider how policies affect minorities differently ● Still tends to overlooks the continuing disparities between whites and african americans in income, housing, employment, and education The Political Environment ● Technologies to take polling have greatly improved (4% margin of error) ● MIP is what policy makers / media is focused on at the time ○ But doesn’t the media cover what people find most important? ● 1946-1963: national mood was broadly optimistic ● Mid 1960s: national mood began to decay (Vietnam War) ● Early 1980s: little improvement in national mood - recession: a period of economic contraction in which the value of the GDP shrinks for two consecutive quarters ● Depression: a particularly severe recession; accompanied by extremely high unemployment and significant reductions in GDP ○ Many people feel disconnected / alienated from government - leads to low rates of electoral participation and registration ● America’s approval of government institutions ○ When Congress’ performance is believed to be good, the president’s performance is rated lower ● Polarization is not as relevant as “party sorting” - a when a party becomes attached to ideologically grounded policy positions The Economic Environment

● The growth of the economy, the distribution of wealth in a society, the size and composition of industry sectors, the rate of growth of the economy, inflation, etc ● Gross Domestic Product (GDP): a measure of the value of all the goods and services created in the nation in a given year ○ Various features of the economy influence the types of policies a society makes ● Keynesian Economics: theories of economics pioneered by the British economist John Maynard Keynes ○ “Countries should accept budget deficits and government spending during recessions so as to stimulate the economy” ■ When the economy is strong, governments should run budget surpluses to make up for the deficits incurred during recessions ● Budget Deficits: difference between what a govt. spends and what it receives in revenue ○ Govt must often borrow to make up the difference (increasing the national debt: total amount owed to a nation’s creditors) ● When in a booming economy, tax collections should rise and coffers should fill good economic times to save for the next downturn ○ In times of economic growth, running a level budget deficit would yield a lower deficit to GDP ratio ● Policy decisions and the daily operations of government also influence the economic environment ○ Transfer payments: transfers of money from the government to individual recipients, such as farm subsidies, disaster relief, and various social welfare programs ● Tax Expenditures: government payments or subsidies in the form of tax deductions or credits; not collecting a tax is similar to collecting it and spending it ● Unemployment Rate: the percentage of the eligible workforce who are looking for work but cannot find it ● Distribution of Income ○ Middle class is being squeezed compared with other economic classes ○ Broader public views unemployment more as a universal rather than class based problem Policy Inputs ● Activities of unofficial actors are policy inputs ○ Public policy is seens as a very important input ○ Congress and the executive branch as the processors of these inputs / creators of outputs Election Results

● Initiative: a process allowed in some states, by which people can propose and vote on laws via a petition and an election ● Referendum: the referral of a change in law to voters for approval ○ Often involve state constitutional change or local decisions on taxation or the issuance of bonds to pay for large capital projects Public Opinion ● Polls provide policymakers with a broad measure of public sentiments about key topics ○ In speaking with constituents, many politicians argue that a prime source of their legislation is citizen input ■ Maybe for local, not for congress Laws ● Statute law: laws that are drafted and passed in the legislature and codified in the statute books ● Case law: laws that are made as a result of judicial decisions and that influence future decisions ● Regulations: the rules that government agencies make to administer the various activities of government Oversight and Evaluation ● Overseeing the programs that congress has already enacted to ensure that they are being run efficiently and effectively ○ Legislative intent: what the legislature meant in drafting legislature ● Policy evaluation: the process of determining whether or not and to what extent a program is achieving some benefit or its explicit in its goals

Chapter 3: The Historical and Structural Contexts of Public Policy Making ● Constitution itself is not a guarantee of our civil rights and liberties or of political stability ○ Instead relies on cultural commitments ● Power of authorities derives from the consent of the governed ● The meaning of the Constitution has been changed (amendments, court rulings, etc) ● In the US, we do not explicitly state that our rights are subject to reasonable limits ○ We must overly confront balance between individual / community rights ■ Should Nazis be allowed to spread Holocaust denial literature?

○ R. v. Keegstra: ( Canada) outlawed hate speech as it leads to violence school teacher spreading anti semitic views ● US places a very high value on individual liberties (esp. related to political activities) The Historical Development of the Constitutional Order ● Policy restraint - the idea that policy making should be deliberative ○ Done purposefully in order to ensure deliberation ■ (1) Divided Power ■ (2) State Activism ■ (3) National Activism ■ (4) National Standards ● Systems that promote restraint ○ Separation of powers: legislative, executive, judicial ○ Federalism: power is shared between a central or federal government and other governments ■ US, Canada, and Germany ● Americans generally consider policy restraint to be a good thing - reflecting the framers’ concerns ● Do the benefits of policy restraint are greater than the costs of such restraint ○ Must consider the near term costs and benefits of creating policies to solve the immediate problem Divided Power Era (1787-1870) ● Major task facing the nation was to divide policy making power between states and government (work together and independently) ● Economic crisis was worsened by The Articles of Confederation: very weak federal union (little power to tax or to exert power) ○ Shays’ Rebellion: Shays and other farmers tried to intimidate courts to delay foreclosures and debt collections ■ the event awakened other states to their need for strong national action to provide protection against insurrection ● Farming interests sought loose money policies to alleviate damage done by inflation ● Framers drafted provisions in Constitution to protect property and political standing of the moneyed classes against popular uprisings ○ Robertson and Judd - “structural impediments to radical policy” ○ Beard Thesis: C as counterrevolutionary document that served to protect their economic interests in the face of populist sentiments ● Most important facet - relatively limited grant of power to the federal government ○ Great deal of power to states from 10th Amendment

■ Which level of government should do something about a problem? ● Congress’ role largely focused on promoting commerce ○ Developed in two major categories ■ (1) The Management of National Responsibilities ● Defense and immigration policy ■ (2) Commercial responsibilities (coining money) ● Setting bankruptcy rules ● Building roads and post offices ○ Gibbons v. Ogden ■ Established under the (commerce clause: reserves to the federal government the power to regulate commerce between states) ● States were prevented from setting up barriers to trade between states - national economy flourishes ● Elastic Clause: grants congress power to do things not explicitly listed in Article 1 Section 8 in order to advance the goals outlined in the Constitution ● Industrial Revolution: when industry grew rapidly due to technical innovations in production ○ Had not yet taken place in the US `State Activism (1870s to 1933) ● Shift from predominantly rural, farming based economy to a modern urban industrial economy ○ Powered by native and immigrant labor ● Led to extremes (poverty and wealth) ○ Disease and crime in newly industrialized cities leads to states seeking solutions ■ Sought to regulate industry and rein in excessive power existing in monopolies ● States could only regulate if the business existed wholly within the state (all monopolies existed across state lines) REGULATION IMPOSSIBLE ○ Bc involved in interstate commerce, people felt that the government had to step in based on the commerce clause ● Interstate Commerce Commission: reaction to the problems of railroad rate setting ● Sherman Antitrust Act: led to breakups of the “trusts” (monopolies) ○ Standard Oil Trust (Exxon, Mobil, Chevron) ● Began to address integrating former slaves into political community

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○ Addressing how some wanted blacks to enjoy all the rights, and others who wanted to keep them in a servile situation ■ Enforcement of Civil War Amendments: 13th, 14th, and 15th ● 1866 and 1875 Civil Rights Acts - grants basic civil rights to African American Men (voting, property rights, right to equal public accommodations) ○ Election of Rutherford Hayes - allows South to enforce ■ Jim Crow Laws: discriminated against AA with regard to housing, jobs, the use of public accommodations, and other civil rights ■ Plessy v. Ferguson: allowed Southern states to pursue policies of racial segregation in all aspects of social, political, and economic life Federal government was also weak in its efforts to regulate industry ○ Corporate power protected by a conservative judiciary (interpreted the constitution to protect business from even minimal regulation) ■ “Purposefully non interventionist” ● Supported laissez-faire economics: government leaves business either totally or almost totally unfettered ○ Lochner v. New York: ruled that cities and states could not regulate the wages and hours of workers (bakers) because such regulation interfered with the worker’s right to freely contract their labor with their employers ■ Ignored the obvious power disparities between workers and employers ● Failed to enact policies that would substantially limit industry’s freedom of action  C upholds minimum wage law in ○ West Coast Hotel Co v. Parrish: S Washington State Congress establishes the Federal Reserve System in 1913: central bank is vital to a modern economy Added Clayton act to Anti Sherman Trust Act - laid groundwork for modern antitrust law Pure Food and Drug Act: intended to remedy the severe problems in food packaging revealed by Sinclair in his novel The Jungle ( working class community and the sanitary issues in its meat packaging) ○ Supported by major food processing firms Federal Reserve still dominated by by private banking interests / Congress weakens WW’s proposed antitrust legislation

Federal and state governments were not completely inactive, but were restricted by a economically / socially conservative judiciary ● Dual citizenship - people were bot...