Anatomy and Physiology Notes 2 PDF

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ANATOMYANDPHYSIOLOGYAnatomy and Physiology- provide the foundation of understanding the body parts and functionsAnatomy - “ana” means up, “tomy” means process of cutting. Is the science of body structures and relationship among them.Dissection- “dis” meaning apart and “section” means act of cutting....

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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

10. Pathological Anatomy- Structural changes (gross to microscopic) associated with disease. BRANCHES OF PHYSIOLOGY 1. Neurophysiology- functional properties of nerve cells. 2. Endocrinology- hormones (chemical regulators in the blood) and how they can control body functions. 3. Cardiovascular Physiologyfunctions of the heart and blood vessels. 4. Immunology- the body’s defenses against disease-causing agents 5. Respiratory Physiologyfunctions of the air passageways and lungs. 6. Renal Physiology- functions of the kidneys. 7. Exercise Physiology- changes in cell and organ functions due to mascular activity. 8. Pathophysiology- functional changes associated with disease and aging.

Anatomy and Physiology- provide the foundation of understanding the body parts and functions Anatomy- “ana” means up, “tomy” means process of cutting. Is the science of body structures and relationship among them. Dissection- “dis” meaning apart and “section” means act of cutting. The careful cutting apart of body structures to study their relationship. Physiology- “physio” means nature “logy” means study of. The science of body functionshow the body parts works.

BRANCHES OF ANATOMY 1.

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Embryology- the first 8 weeks of development after fertilization of a human egg. Developmental Biology- the complete development of an individual from fertilization to death. Cell Biology- Cellular structures and function Histology- Microscopic structure of tissues Gross Anatomy- Structures can be examined without microscope Systemic Anatomy- Structure of specific systems of the body Regional Anatomy-specific regions of the body such as the head or chest. Surface Anatomy- surface markings of the body to understand internal anatomy through visualization and palpitation (gentle touch) Imaging Anatomy- body structures that can be visualized with techniques such as Xrays, MRIs, and CT Scans

LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION AND BODY SYSTEMS

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Chemical level- the very basic level. Includes the atoms, the smallest units of matter that participate in chemical Reactions and molecules, two or more atoms joined together. Carbon, Hydrogen and oxygen. Cellular level- molecules combine to Form cells, the basic structural and Functional units of an organism that are composed of chemicals. Cells are the smallest living units in the human body. (e.g muscle cells, nerve cells, epithelial cells)

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Tissue level- groups of cells and the materials surrounding them.

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Epithelial Tissue- covers body surfaces, lines hollow organs and cavities. Connective Tissue- connects, supports and protects body organs while distributing blood vessel to other tissues. Mascular Tissue- contracts to make body parts move and generate heat. Structures that are composed two or more different kinds of tissues, have different functions and have recognizable shapes.

Nervous Tissue- carries information from one part of the body to another through nerve impulses. •

Organ level- different types of tissues are joined together. Organs are

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System level- consists of related Organs with a common function.

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Organismal level- any living individual can be compared to a book. All the parts of the human body functioning together constitute the total organism.

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5. 11 SYSTEMS OF THE HUMAN BODY 1.

Endocrine system- regulates body activities by releasing hormones 2. Cardiovascular System- heart pumps blood through blood vessels. 3. Lymphatic System- returns proteins and fluid to blood. 4. Respiratory System- transfers oxygen from inhaled air to blood. 5. Digestive System- achieves physical and chemical breakdown of food, absorbs nutrients, and eliminates solid wastes. 6. Urinary System-produces, stores, and eliminates urine wastes. 7. Reproductive System- Gonads produce gametes that unite to form organism 8. Integumentary System- protects the body, helps regulate blood temperature 9. Skeletal System- supports and protects the body. Provides surface area for muscle attachment. Aids body movements. 10. Nervous System- generates action potentials (nerve impulses) to regulate body activities. BASIC LIFE PROCESSES 1.

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Metabolism- sum of all chemical processes that occur in the body. Catabolism- complex to simpler Anabolism- smaller to complex Responsiveness- the body’s ability to detect and respond to changes. Movement- includes motion of the whole body, individual organs, single

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Cells and even tiny structures inside cells. Growth- increase in body size that results from an increase in the size of existing cells. Increase in number of cells. Differentiation- development of a cell from an unspecialized to specialized state ex. Stem cells. Reproduction- refers to either (1) the formation of new cells for tissue growth, repair or replacement (2) the production of a new individual.

HOMEOSTASIS- the condition of equilibrium or balance in the body’s internal environment Intracellular Fluid- within cells Extracellular Fluid- outside body cells Interstitial Fluid- fills narrow spaces between tissues Blood Plasma- ECF with blood vessels Lymph- within lymphatic vessels Cerebrospinal Fluid- brain and spinal cord Synovial Fluid- in joints Aqueous Humor- in the eyes. Disorder- is any abnormality of structure or function Disease- more specific term for an illness characterize by a recognizable set of signs or symptoms. Symptoms- subjective changes in body functions that are not apparent to an observer. (Ex. Headache, nausea, and anxiety) Signs- objective changes that a clinician can observe and measure. Anatomical- swelling or rash Physiological- fever, hb pressure Epidemiology- The science that deals with any why, when, and where diseases occur and how they are transmitted among individuals in a community. (Epi “upon” demi “people”) Diagnosis- (dia “through” gnosis “knowing”) is the science of distinguishing one disorder or disorder from another.

Medical History- collecting information about events that might be related to patient’s illness.

Pharmacology- pharma “drug” is the science that deals with the effects and uses of drugs in the treatment of disease. ANATOMICAL POSITION AND DIRECTIONAL TERMS

Anatomical Position- descriptions of any region or part of the human body. Assume that it is in a standard position of reference. ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

Stands erect facing the observer Head level and eyes facing directly forward Lower limbs are parallel Feet are flat on the floor directed forward Upper limbs are at the sides with the palms turned forward

Prone Position- patient is lying face down Supine Position- the body is lying face up. DIRECTIONAL TERMS A. Anterior/Ventral: in front

Q. Adduction: moving toward the midline R. Abduction: moving away from the midline S. Eversion: turning a body part outward T. Inversion: turning a body part inward U. Pronation: turning a body part downward V. Supination: turning a body part upward (as in shrug shoulders, palms up, “what’s up?”) W. Deep: away from the body surface, more internal X. Superficial: toward or at the body surface Y. Plantar: toward the sole of the foot Z. Palmar: toward the palm of the hand

B. Posterior/Dorsal: in back C. Medial: toward the midline D. Lateral: toward the side E. Internal: within body F. External: outside the body

PLANES A. Sagittal: divides the body or organ vertically into right and left unequal parts B. Medial/Mid-sagittal: divides the body or organ vertically into equal right and left parts

G. Proximal: closest to the point of origin H. Distal: farther from the point of origin I. Superior: upper or above J. Inferior: lower

C. Coronal/Frontal: divides the body or organ vertically into anterior and posterior parts D. Transverse: divides the body or organ horizontally or into cranial/caudal parts

K. Cranial: towards the head L. Caudal: towards the tailbone M. Flexion: decreasing the angle between two bones N. Extension: increasing the angle between two bones O. Afferent: carrying toward a center P. Efferent: carrying away or away from a center

BODY CAVITIES A.

Ventral (Anterior) 1. Thoracic: chest, superior to the diaphragm a. Right pleural: right lung b. Left pleural: left lung c. Mediastinum: heart (in pericardial cavity), trachea, right/left bronchus, esophagus, thymus gland, aorta/aortic arch, vena cava 2. Abdominopelvic: inferior to diaphragm a. Abdominal: liver, gallbladder, stomach, pancreas, intestines, spleen, kidneys, ureters b. Pelvic: bladder, female reproductive organs (uterus, fallopian tubes, ovaries), male reproductive organs (prostate, seminal vesicles, part of vas

Deferens), part of large intestine (colon, rectum)

B. Dorsal (Posterior) 1. Cranial: houses the brain 2. Spinal: houses the spinal cord

4. Mammary: breat BODY REGIONS

5. Costal: rib 6. Scapular: shoulder blade

A. Head 1. Parietal: top of head towards the back and sides

7. Pectoral: chest 8. Deltoid: shoulder area

2. Frontal: forehead

D. Abdominal

3. Occipital: base of skull

1. Hypochondriac: under the cartilage of the ribs, right and left

4. Temporal: sides of head 5. Auricular: ear 6. Buccal: cheek 7. Orbital: eye socket 8. Mastoid: behind the ear

2. Epigastric: over/above the stomach 3. Umbilical: surrounding the navel, belly button 4. Hypogastric: under/below the stomach 5. Inguinal/iliac: groin, right and left

9. Nasal: bridge of nose 10. Mental: chin 11. Submental: beneath the chin 12. Maxillary: upper jaw 13. Mandibular: lower jaw 14. Zygomatic: cheek bone

E. Abdominal Quadrants 1. RUQ: liver, gallbladder, large intestine 2. LUQ: stomach, spleen, pancreas, large intestine 3. RLQ: appendix, large intestine, ovary, fallopian tube

B. Neck 4. LLQ: large intestine, ovary, fallopian tube 1. Larynx: front of neck 2. Trachea: front of neck F. Posterior Trunk 3. Cervical: back of neck 1. Nuchal: back of neck 2. Cervical: neck C. Thorax 3. Thoracic: back of trunk 1. Axillary: armpit 2. Clavicular: collar bone 3. Sternal: midchest

4. Lumbar: at small of back, lower back, waist area, lateral mid-abdomen, right and left 5. Sacral: pelvis, tailbone area 6. Coccyx: tailbone 7. Gluteal: buttocks

G. Extremities 1. Brachial: upper arm 2. Antecubital: front of elbow

4. Carpal: wrist

3. Olecranon: back of elbow

5. Phalanges: fingers, toes

6. Manual: hand

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Mechanical support

7. Pollex: thumb 8. Femoral: thigh

SKIN PARTS AND ITS FUNCTIONS

9. Patellar: front of knee

Epidermis- It is the outermost layer of the integumentary system overlying the dermis

10. Popliteal: behind the knee 11. Tarsal: ankle 12. Pedal: foot 13. Calcaneal: heel of foot

-It serves as barrier from germs and viruses -It has four main strata. Composed of Keratinized stratified -Its purpose is to protect the body from environmental pathogens and chemical compounds.

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM Epidermis 4 Types of Cells THE SKIN Dermatology- The medical speciality that deals with the diagnosis or treatment of integumentary system disorders.

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Keratinocytes Melanocytes Langerhans Cell Merkel Cell

-contributes to homeostasis by protecting the body and helping regulate the temperature STRATAS OF THE SKIN -allows you to sense pleasure, pain and other stimuli in your external environment -It has a protective features to ward off the damage. It also shows human emotions - Changes in color may indicate imbalances in the body (hypoxia) Skin- the largest organ in the body, both in weight and surface area FUNCTIONS OF THE SKIN • • • •

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Regulates body temperature Immunological function mediated by Langerhans cells. Excretes toxic substances with sweat. Sensory organ for touch, heat, cold, socio sexual and emotional sensations. Protection of the body from harmful effects of the sun and radiation. Prevents loss of essential body fluid, and penetration of toxic substances. Vitamin D synthesis from its precursors under the effect of sunlight and introversion of steroids

1. Stratum Basale- Also known as stratum germinativum. Deepest layer of the epidermis. -Basement membrane attached this layer to dermis -Stem cells undergo cell division to produce more keratinocytes -Melanocytes are located in stratum membrane wherein these cells produced pigments called melanin that provides human skin, hair and eyes their color 2. Stratum Spinosum- consists of 8-10 rows of many-sided keratinocytes with bundles of tonofilaments -Include arm-like processes of melanocytes Langerhans cells 3. Stratum Granulosum- Granulos means little -Consists of 3-5 layers of flattened keratinocytes that are undergoing aptosis -Cells have purple staining keratohyalin granules in their cytoplasm -Lucid, light or clear in Latin -Often appears to be translucent in such specimens

-Present in thick areas such as fingertips, palms of the hands and soles of the feet -Consists of 3-5 rows of clear, flat, dead keratinocytes with large amount of keratins

4. Stratum Carenum -Lucid, light or clear in Latin -Outermost layer of epidermis

-Tough layer that consists of 25-30 rows of dead and flattened cells -It cells have been toughened by complete keratinization thus protecting the skin from microorganisms, infection, dehydration and chemical and mechanical stress.

DERMIS-immediately below the epidermis. Largest portion of the skin -Provides tensile strength, mechanical support and protection to the underlying muscles, bones, and organs. -Made up of blood and lymph vessels, nerves, sweat and sebaceous glands and hair roots -Often referred to as true skin

-Layer is made of dense irregular connective tissue that contains many tough collagen and stretchy elastin fibers running in all direction to provide strength and elasticity to the skin. -Contains blood vessels to support the skin cells and nerve tissue to sense pressure and pain in the skin. HYPODERMIS- also known as hypodermis/ sub cutis/ subcutaneous tissue - deep to the dermis is a layer of loose connective tissues -Areolar connective tissue in the hypodermis contains elastin and collagen fibers loosely arranged to allow the skin to stretch and move independently of its underlying structures.

REGIONS OF DERMIS

- Fatty adipose tissue in hypodermis stores energy in the form of triglycerides. Also helps to insulate the body by trapping body heat produced by the underlying muscles

Papillary Region- the papillary layer is the superficial layer of the dermis that borders on the epidermis.

SKIN GLANDS

-The papillary layer contains many finger-like extensions called dermal papillae that protrude superficially towards the epidermis.

Sudoriferous Glands- exocrine glands found in the dermis of the skin and commonly known as sweat glands.

-The dermal papillae increase the surface area of the dermis and contain many nerves and blood vessels that are projected toward the surface of the skin. Blood flowing through the dermal papillae provide nutrients and oxygen for the cells of the epidermis. The nerves of the dermal papillae are used to feel, touch, pain, and temperature through the cells of the epidermis.

2 Major Types of Sudoriferous gland 1. 2.

Eccrine sweat glands Apocrine sweat glands

1. Sebaceous Glands- exocrine glands found in the dermis of the skin -produces and oily secretion known as sebum

Reticular Region -The deeper layer of the dermis, is the thicker and tougher part of the dermis, the reticular layer, is the thicker and tougher part of the dermis.

-Sebum is produced and carried through ducts to the surface of the skin or to hair follicles. -Sebum acts to waterproof and increases the elasticity of the skin. -Sebum also lubricates and protects the cuticles of hairs as they pass through the follicles to the exterior of the body. -found in every part of the skin except for the thick skin of the palms of the hands and soles of the feet 2. Ceruminous Glands- special exocrine glands found only in the dermis of the ear canals.

-produce waxy secretion known as cerumen to protect ear canals and lubricate the eardrum. -Cerumen, protects the ears by trapping foreign material such as dust and airborne pathogens

-made continuously and pushes the older cerumen outward toward the exterior of the ear canal where it falls out of the ear or is manually removed.

THE NAIL Nail Body- formed on the nail bed, protects the tips of our fingers and toes as they are the farthest extremities and the parts of the body that experience the maximum mechanical stress.

Hair- an accessory organ of the skin made up of columns of tightly packed dead keratinocytes found in most regions of the body. -the few hairless parts of the body include palmar surface of the hands, plantar surface of the feet, lips, labia minora, and glans penis.

Free edge- is the part of the nail body that may extend past the distal end of the digit. Lunula- The whitish, crescent shaped area of the proximal end of the nail body. Eponychium- the cuticle, narrow band of epidermis that extends from and adheres to the margin (lateral border) of the nail wall. Nail Root- is the portion of the nail that is buried in a fold of skin. Nail Matrix- proximal portion of the eithelium deep to the nail Eponychium- Nail bed, a specialized structure of the epidermis that is found at the tips of our fingers and toes.

Nail growth- average growth rate 1mm (0.04 in) -occurs by the transformation of superficial cells of the matrix into nail cells.

FUNCTIONS OF THE NAILS ✓ ✓ ✓

protection against trauma to the edge of the digits Manipulate small objects Helps to grasp

FUNCTIONS OF THE HAIR ✓

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helps to protect the body from UV radiation by preventing sunlight from striking the skin. insulates the body by trapping warm air around the skin.

1. Follicle- depression of epidermal cells deep into the dermis. -Stem cells in the follicle reproduce to form the keratinocytes that eventually form the hair -Melanocytes, produces pigment that gives the hair its color. 2. Root- within the follicle is the hair root, the portion of the hair below the skin’s surface -as the follicles roduces new hair, the cells in the root push up to the surface until they exit the skin. 3. Shaft- the shaft consists of the part of the hair that is found outside of the skin. The hair shaft and root are made of 3 distinct layers: cuticle, cortex, and medulla.

The Hair Shaft 1. THE HAIR

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Cuticle-the outermost layer made of keratinocytes. The keratinocytes of the cuticle are stacked on top of each other like shingles so that the outer tip of each cell points away from the body. Cortex- under the cuticle are the cells of the cortex that form the majority of the hair’s width. The spindle-shaped and tightly packed cortex cells contain pigments that give the hair its color.

Medulla- the innermost layer of the hair, the medulla, is not present in all hairs. When present, the medulla usually contains highly pigmented cells full of keratin. When the medulla is absent, the cortex continues through the middle of the hair. PHYSIOLOGY OF INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

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Keratinazation- also known as cornification is the process of keratin accumulating within keratinocytes. Keratinocytes begin their life as

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