Anatomy Notes - Very detailed and thorough presentation of HLTH108 lecture content. Pictures PDF

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Very detailed and thorough presentation of HLTH108 lecture content. Pictures have also been used to supplement learning.
Lecturer: Goran....

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ANATOMY NOTES

WEEK 1 – INTRO TO ANATOMY:

ANATOMY: From Greek words Ana = up or apart, tome = cutting, i.e. cutting apart lol. -

Science of the structure of the body and the relationships of its parts (structures and their relations).

NOTE: the sister science to anatomy, that dissects the function of these structures at a deeper level is PHYSIOLOGY. Sub-disciplines:  Embryology: formation, early growth, development of living organisms.  Histology (microscopic): microscopic structure and comp of body tissues.  Gross (macroscopic/morphological): structures that can be distinguished with unaided eyes. HUMAN BODY (structural organization): Chemical compounds combine to form:  Cells: basic units of life (cytology: study of structure and function of cells)  Tissue: group of cells and cell products that perform a special function, e.g. muscle, epithelial cells (histology).  Organ: combination of two or more different tissues, e.g. heart, brain.  Systems: a set of organs with common function, e.g. digestive, urinary (gross anatomy).  Human body: amalgam of all systems.

TERMINOLOGY: Anatomical position: the natural position we use when talking about the body.

Regions:

Directional terms: -

Proximal (closer to the attachment to the trunk) Distal (further away from the attachment to trunk). Superior Inferior – up to down. Lateral Medial – relationship to the midline* Ventral Dorsal – towards the stomach vs towards back. Almost identical to anterior/posterior in humans, but not always in animals.

*Midline: central line across the body (top – down)

Planes:

-

Frontal: Coronal Transverse: Horizontal Parasagittal: top – down Midsaggital: top – down on midline. Oblique: at an angle.

BODY CAVITIES:

-

POSTERIOR (dorsal)  Cranial cavity, vertebral canal. ANTERIOR (ventral)  Viscera*: Thoracic  P, M, P + Abdominopelvic  A, P. The diaphragm divides the T and AP cavities.

*Viscera: the internal organs in main body cavities, esp abdomen, e.g. intenstines.

ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY:

Subdivided into abdominal and pelvic cavity. -

No structure that does this, unlike the diaphragm  divides thoracic and abdominopelvic cavity. AP cavity: 2 parasagittal lines are the LEFT and RIGHT MIDCLAVICULAR LINES: All below are REGIONS!

Right hypochondriac Right lumbar Right inguinal (iliac)

Epigastric Umbilical Hypogastric

Left hypochondriac Left lumbar Left inguinal (iliac)

Epi = upon, over Hypo = beneath, under BRIEF PIC OF ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY IN SLIDE 19 OF INTRO LECTURE!

MEMBRANES that cover the walls of the ABDOMINAL, THORACIC CAVITIES: Serous (serum producing) membrane covers the viscera, lines the walls of the cavities: -

Parietal layer (Layer over cavity). Visceral layer (Layer under cavity that covers the organs of the viscera).

Cavity btw two layers contains lubricating serous fluid. Btw = between LOL, Peri = surrounding, Viscus = internal organ (viscera is plural). 3 membranes: -

Pleura  lungs Pericardium  heart Peritoneum  abdominal cavity

http://slideplayer.com/9826038/32/images/50/Body+Cavities+2+layers%3A+Visceral+layer+ %E2%80%93+covers+an+organ.jpg  Pic that explains this with analogy of a fist.

LECTURE 2 – CELLS, BASIC TISSUES, EPITHELIUM:

CELL BIOLOGY OUTLINE: Cellular structure, nucleus, cytoplasm, plasma membrane, organelles. Cells aren’t too important too us in the anatomy context, but we need a basic understanding to understand further anatomical concepts. CELL STRUCTURE:

Human body  60-100 trillion cells  200 diff types. -

Variety of shapes and sizes, e.g. RBC 7.5, ovum 140 µm (huge, because if it gets fertilized by sperm, it needs energy to create the zygote) in diameter. Structure  important to function.

MAIN COMPONENTS: 1. Plasma membrane, 2. nucleus and 3. cytoplasm.

1. PLASMA MEMBRANE: -

Made up of a bilayer of lipids  phospholipids, cholesterol, glycolipids. Contains integral (transmembrane) and peripheral (surface) proteins embedded in membrane. Selectively permeable. Glycolipids (fat sugar) + glycoproteins (protein sugar)  GLYCOCALYX  Sugary protein that is key to cellular recognition.

Membranes:  Act as physical barrier  Regulate endo and exocytosis  Mediate cellular recognition and interaction Fluids: 1. Intracellular  cytosol 2. Extracellular  interstitial plasma and lymph Movement: Diffusion, osmosis, passive and active transport, endocytosis (in) *, exocytosis (out). *2 types of exocytosis: 1. Pynocytosis: membrane engulfs (takes in) small fluid droplets from interstitial plasma and lymph. 2. Phagocytosis: membrane engulfs solid particles from interstitial plasma and lymph.

2. NUCLEUS: Contains DNA which stores information for inheritance in genes, which make mRNA  aa’s  polypeptides  proteins. -

Bound by a double layered nuclear membrane with pores (for endo and exo).

Nucleolus: Middle of nucleus; site of ribosomal subunit (parts of ribosomes) synthesis. Chromatin: Uncondensed chromosomes made up of coiled DNA, proteins (histones) and some RNA.

3. CYTOPLASM: Part of cell outside nucleus. -

Consists of cytosol* (intracellular fluid) and organelles.

*Fluid contains water (70-90%), dissolved solutes, suspended particles  metabolic products of cells, different for different cells, e.g. pigment granules (stationary and abiotic), lipid droplets, glycogen).

4. ORGANELLES: Microscopic structures that regulate growth, maintenance and reproduction. Only looking at their shape, position, relation and function. Cytoskeleton  2 filament types and microtubules: -

Strands of proteins that reinforce the cell and facilitate movement of the cell, and within it.

3 types of cytoskeleton: 1. Microfilaments  Actin and Myosin 2. Intermediate filaments  keratin 3. Microtubules  tubulin

PIC BELOW:

Ribosomes: Small, granular organelles either found in CYTOSOL (free) or on the surface of rough endoplasmic reticulum (rER). -

Sites of protein synthesis that translate mRNA into protein.

ER: Complex network of folded membranes between minute spaces (cisternae). -

Pathway for transportation of substances and storage area for synthesized molecules.

2 types: 1. Rough ER: contains embedded ribosomes (sites of protein synthesis). Vesicles on rER package these proteins  bind to golgi apparatus (GA)  GA modify sort and proteins  vesicles transport them where necessary. 2. Smooth ER: does not have ribosomes. Mediate lipid synthesis and detoxification (hence, a lot found in liver). DRUGS AND ALCOHOL PROLIFERATE ER!

Golgi apparatus (in green): Set of membranes that fold to make cisterns. -

Proteins bind to golgi apparatus (GA)  GA modify sort and proteins  vesicles transport them where necessary..

Mitochondria: Perform aerobic respiration, converting carbohydrates + oxygen  carbon dioxide + water  making ENERGY. -

Have their own DNA. Matrilinear inheritance  DNA only from mother.

Lysosomes: Membrane bound vesicles produced by golgi complex. -

Mainly DIGESTIVE ENZYMES (‘stomachs’ of cell), that break down macros, and help with general recycling.

Leukocytes (WBC’s) have many phagocytic lysosomes.

Cilia and flagella: Motile organelles that have cytoskeletons made of microtubule: -

Cilia: 20 microtubules surrounded by plasma membrane specialization. Flagella: tail of sperm.

CELL JUNCTIONS: Junctions between plasma membranes of tissue cells: tight junction, adherens junction, desmosomes, hemidesmosomes (half desmosomes), gap junctions.

BASIC TISSUE: Group of similar cells and cell products that perform a special function; cells + interstitial matrix (liquid, semisolid, solid). 4 types: -

Epithelial Nervous Connective Muscle

Organs: ALL have a STROMA  supporting tissue and PARENCHYMA  cells that actually perform function, e.g. hepatocytes are the parenchyma of liver.

EPITHELIAL TISSUE (CT): Covers, lines and protects surfaces. Also in charge of secretion (glands), absorption (intestine), sensation (neuroepithelium) and contraction (myoepithelium). 2 main types (arbitrary classification lol): -

Covering: the cells are organized in layers that cover external surface or line body cavities. Glandular: gland cells specialized produce secretions.

NOTE: NOTHING COVERS EPITHELIUM. Epithelial tissue is always at the apex.

Main features: -

Uninterrupted layer of tightly packed cells. Holes in the epithelium  due to invagination, no gaps in layers of cells. Polarised  has a free apical surface, basal surface and lateral surface. One or several layers of cells  simple or stratified lol. Connective tissue (CT) underlies epithelial tissue – lamina propria (CT) bound to epithelium by basement membrane. Avascular  receives nutrients by diffusion from lamina propria.

BASEMENT MEMBRANE: Formed by secretion of both ET cells and CT cells. -

Separates ET from underlying CT. Selectively permeable btw the two. Composed of 2 layers:

1. Basal lamina  produced by ET BL is made of protein filaments (laminin, collagen, glycoproteins, proteoglycans) embedded in an amorphous matrix. 2. Reticular lamina  produced by CT  made of reticular fibres embedded in ground substance. These two can be observed in diagram above ^^^

SPECIALIZATIONS OF THE CELL SURFACE: -

Microvilli: small protrusions that increase surface area for greater absorption, made of microtubules. Stereocillia: bigger microvilli, e.g. inner ear, epididymis, vas deferens, “ “ “. Cilia: elongated structures for motility, “ “ “.

EPITHELIAL LAYERS: There are 2 criteria for classification of epithelial cells: 1. Shape of cell, 2. Number of cell layers. -

Simple epithelium  one cellular layer. Stratified epithelium  two or more cell layers.

Simple: squamous, cuboidal, columnar (either ciliated or not on apex), pseudostratified (either ciliated or not on apex). Stratified: squamous (keratinous or nonkeratinized), cuboidal, columnar, transitional.

SIMPLE Squamous epithelium consists of flattened cells in mosaic fashion with flat central nucleus. -

Function: diffusion and filtration. Location: pulmonary alveoli, kidneys, lining inner walls of heart, blood and lymphatic vessels (endothelium) + serous membranes that line cavities, i.e. pericardium, peritoneum, pleura (mesothelium).

Cuboidal epithelium is composed of cube shaped cells, with central round nucleus. -

Function: secretion, absorption, filtration. Location: found in kidney tubules and ovary surfaces.

Columnar epithelium consists of rectangular cells, nucleus close to basement membrane. Can be covered by microvilli or cilia. -

Function: protection, absorption, lubrication, secretion. Location: lining of intestine, uterine tubes, bronchioles.

Pseudostratified epithelium cells of DIFF heights, with variable positions of the nucleus, giving a stratified appearance (but not really); contains goblet cells. Ciliated or not. -

Function: protection, movement IF CILIATED, secretion. Location: trachea, bronchi, nasal cavity.

STRATIFIED – Squamous:

PAP TEST ABOVE FOR DIAGNOSIS OF PRE-CANCEROUS OR CANCEROUS CONDITIONS. Scratching cells from the apical surface of the vagina, which are placed on the slide. Stratified cuboidal  Usually only two or three layers. RARE. -

Function: protection and secretion. Location: ducts of sweat glands, pancreas.

Stratified columnar  the apical cells are columnar, while that the basal cell cells are short and have irregular shape. -

Function: protection and secretion. Location: conjunctiva, large ducts of salivary glands.

Transitional  contains cells that change form according to degree of distention (stretching)   Squamous (flat) when stretched.  Cuboidal when relaxed. - Function: protection and distention (in organs that need to stretch, e.g. like distention in bladder when busting). - Location: lining cavity of urinary bladder, ureters, renal calyces.

GLANDULAR EPITHELIA (as opposed to covering epithelia): Cells specialized to secrete and make export molecules, i.e. proteins, lipids, salts, carbs. -

Unicellular or multicellular. Exocrine glands: release products via system of ducts, open to surface of the body  contact external (skin) and internal (GIT) surfaces. Endocrine glands: secrete hormones into extracellular space and into the bloodstream.

UNICELLULAR: Simplest secretory cells distributed amongst other non secretory cells, e.g. goblet cells (GC) are a unicellular gland. -

GC found in lining of intestines, respiratory tract and conjunctiva of eye  produce carb dense glycoprotein called mucin, secreted as mucus.

MULTICELLULAR: Invaginations on the tissue surface. Secretory portions will secrete the hormone, and duct portions will expend/release it. 2 major principles of classification: 1. No. of ducts, 2. Shape of secretory portion. 1. Simple – only one duct. 2. Compound – duct branches into more ducts.

Shape (SP): -

Tubular: tube shaped. Acinar: flask shaped. Tubuloacinar: tube shaped in beginning, then flask shaped at the end.

Just need to know the major principles of classification! METHOD OF SECRETION FROM DUCT: 1. Merocrine: secretion via exocytosis, e.g. pancreatic acinar cells. 2. Apocrine: molecules gather at the apex of the cytoplasm, then whole apex is pinched off, e.g. sweat, mammary and prostate glands. 3. Holocrine: cell literally breaks down and dies to secrete molecules. Holocrine are continuously produced in the basal layer of the epithelium, e.g. sebaceous glands.

WEEK 1 (2) – CONNECTIVE TISSUE (CT):

General characteristics, classification, cells, extracellular matrix, connective tissue proper, cartilage. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS: Provides structural and metabolic support to other tissues. Also  protection, transport, repair, storage. -

With few exceptions, well vascularised.

Main components  Cells, Extracellular matrix (EM) (major constituent) + fibers and ground substance within EM.

CLASSIFICATION: They develop from embryonic mesenchymal cells. -

Two suffixes used to classify CT  Blast (immature) and cyte (mature). Blast cells produce substances, e.g. fibroblast produces fibre, and cyte cells maintain, e.g. adipocytes maintain fat. Can have RESIDENT (fixed) and WONDERING (transient) cell population (migrated from blood as a result of specific stimuli).

CELLS: Types: Fibroblasts, adipocytes, chondroblasts*, osteoblasts. *Chondro = cartilage. Cells with defence functions: Mast cells, macrophages, lymphocytes, plasma cells, eosinophils. Fibroblasts: Most common cell type. Two types: 1. Active: fibroblast  bigger, abundant and branched processes, rich in rER and Golgi A, oval nucleus. Synthesizes 3 types of fibres* 2. Quiescent: fibrocyte  smaller, spindle shaped and elongated nucleus. Active = actively producing fibre, Quiescent = passively maintaining structure.

*Synthesizes collagen, elastic and reticular fibres. Makes extracellular material and is responsible for WOUND REPAIR. Adipocytes: Cells specialised for fat storage, energy and insulation. Also synthesize hormones and growth factors. -

Form of loose connective tissue. Cytoplasm  flattened nucleus which forms a very narrow rim around a large central lipid droplet   since cytoplasm doesn’t mix with the lipid droplet, unlike simple squamous epithelium, which does, and therefore has a bunch of cells packed together to make a circle.

Each circle here is 1 cell, since the cytoplasm’s of these adipocytes do not mix with the lipid droplet 

Macrophage (‘pacman’ of the human body): Cells that destroy bacteria and cellular debris (through phagocytosis). -

Develop from monocytes (WBC). Irregular shape, and short branched projections. Two types  1. Fixed, 2. Wandering.

Mast cells: Develop in bone marrow, and differentiate in connective tissue. Function  inflammatory and allergic response (granules contain histamine, heparin), and kill bacteria.

EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX (both fibre and GS constitute the EM):

Fibre types: -

1. Collagen (strength), 2. reticular (structure) and 3. elastic (Stretch)  3 S’s m8 (SEX, SEX, SEX).

Ground substance (GS): -

Either fluid (blood), semisolid (cartilage), solid (bone, fascia, tendons). Consists of water, complex carbs, and glycoproteins  glycosaminoglycans, proteoglycans and multi-adhesive glycoproteins; hyaluronic acids.

Functions: mechanical and structural support for tissue. Also has a biochemical barrier role in regulating metabolic functions in surrounding cells. 1. COLLAGEN: Most abundant fibre, closely packed, flexible and high tensile STRENGTH. -

Made of collagen protein. Major types of protein include:

Type 1: skin, bones, tendons organ capsules  strong, resistant to force, tension, stretch. Type 2: hyaline and elastic cartilage  resistance to pressure. Type 3: Reticular in organs, smooth muscle  reticular fibres, support. Type 4: associated with Lamina propria of epithelial cells  support and filtration. NOTE: won’t really need to distinguish these, just need to know what collagen is and there are 4 types. 2. RETICULAR: Very thin collagen fibre associated with high levels of glycoprotein. RETICULAR TISSUE IS A STROMA (as discussed earlier)  provides support for various cell constituents and organs. 3. ELASTIC: Thin, elastic (made of protein called elastin) cell that allows tissue respond to distension (stretch). Found in skin, lung and bladder.

CLASSIFICATION: Embryonic CT:  Mesenchyme.  Mucous CT.

Mature CT:

Connective tissue proper:  Loose CT – areolar, reticular, adipose.  Dense CT – irregular, regular, elastic. Specialized CT:  Cartilage, bone, blood, lymphoid tissue.

LOOSE CT: Fibres are LOOSELY intertwined btw cells. TYPES:  Areolar, reticular, adipose (as above lol). Loose AREOLAR CT (spidery cog web shape): Most common type of LOOSE CT. -

Contains all 3 fibres (SSS), abundant GS, flexible, well vascularised and not very resistant to stress, e.g. playdough is elastic but not stress resistant. Subcutaneous* layer  surrounds lymph and blood vessels, nerves and body organs, lamina propria of mucuous membranes, dermis of skin.

*Subcutaneous = in hypodermis layer under dermis, then epidermis. We know 2 things make up CT  FIBRE and GS  both make up the extracellular matrix.  In the loose connective areolar tissue, the bulk of it is GS, with less fibre, so it looks more loose.  If those 2 things constitute the EM, then what is left are the actual cells, i.e. FIBROBLASTS, FIBROCYTES.

Loose RETICULAR CT:

Loosely intertwining reticular fibres.  Forms the STROMA, i.e. Binds SMOOTH MUSCLE CELLS. Also, filter blood and lymph.

Loose ADIPOSE CT: Adipocytes. -

Subcutaneous, around organs, e.g. hearts, kidneys, yellow marrow of long bones.

Function  insulation, energy, support and protection. DENSE CT: More numerous, thicker, with closely packed fibres. Generally, less cells compared to loose CT. Types  regular, irregular and elastic. Dense REGULAR CT (1 directional arrangement of fibres): Greater proportion of collagen fibres compared to cells, and lit...