Animal Learning and Cognition whole module summary - open notes for exam PDF

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Whole module summary of Animal Learning and Cognition. These were my open notes for the exam - very useful summary!...

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US: fd UR: salvates CS: bell Associative structures S-S mem of tne ass w. mem of fd whch actvt mtr prgm to apprch mag: P.C incrs strength of SS / SR: tne drctly lnk to motor prgrm: reinfrcr strngthns SR: prdcts anmls dnt anticipt rwrd (main prnclp of IC) so Tolman 32 rjctd SR & props P.C= CS-US (tne sgnls fd) & IL= S-R-US (tne sgnls rspnse (go to mag) becs knwn consqunc of ths actn): apprch mag due to cogntn nt bhvr: antcpt cnsqncs  spprtd by evdnc tht IL anmls lrn rltn btwn rspns & cnsqnc: rspns = punish thn bhvr is withheld bt rspns = rwrd bhvr repetd Tinkelpaugh 28: mnkys slctd 1 of 2 fd wells to reeice rwrd (banana or lettuce: prfr ban): aftr trnin smtims givn lettc whn shld hv rcvd ban: bhvr of mnkys indictd thy expctd ban Elliot 28: rats run thrgh maz 4 fd: no. of errors incrs whn qulty of rwrd is redcd: hv sme expctatn of rwrd  Tolman 32 argd ths findins sggst R-US lnk (lrn rspns is fllwd by crtn otcm) bt S-R thrsts arg cld b CS-US (cntxt is assctd to otcme: strength of instmntl rltn inflncd by pvlvn prprties of cntxt in whch rspns is prfrmd): bth R-US & CS-US r crrct: spprt 4 R-US (RO) frm C&R 85 rnfrcr devaltn bt stll sm lvr prssin: frmd S-R assctn as well: A&D 81: rltv cntrbtn of R-US & S-R assctn to instmntl bhvr dpnds on trnin givn Evdnc 4 S-R-US: Rescorla 91: S1 (lght): R1(chn pll) US1 (fd) & R2(lvr pss)  US2 (sucrs sltn) S2(tn) R1>US2 & R2>US1 / devlutn of US2 (scrs>LiCl) / in tst prfr to prfrm chn pll in prsns of lght & lvr prss in prns of tne: nt jst S-R othrws devlu wld hv no effc & cnt b jst R-US as devl wld hv wknd chn pll & lvr prss to sm extnt in prns of bth stmli: sbjcs awr tht devld renfcr (scrs) fllwd R2 inS1 & R1inS2: S-R-US (lrn to prfrm rspns in prsns of stml S-R & tht crtn rnfrcr wll fllw rspns (R-US) Assciatve lrnin AL cn b said to hv tkn plac whn ther is a chng in an anmls bhvr as a rslt of 1 evnt bein paird w. anthr Typs of AL: Pavlovian cndtnin (PC): neurtl CS & biolgically sig US r paird tghtr (tone&food) Instrumental cnditnin (IC): do smthn to gt smthn (lever pressfood): PC & IC r tools 4 analysn a.lrnin in anmls: ordrly chngs in bhvr tht prvid wy of building an accnt of conceptual nervous systm (inferrn wht goin on in thr minds) Why stdy cnceptl n.s rthr thn ral thng: undrtndin th bhvrl outcm will aid our undrstnfin of real n.s, little is knwn abt hw th real n.s lrns Why anmls nt humns: studied 4 mny yrs so lts of info alrdy Degree of cntrl abt anmls prior exprncs Potential 4 sysnthsis acrss lvls of analys: cn stdy all th way frm anml bhvr to neuroscience Relvnt to hmns?: undrlyin physcl simlrity (neurons), confrontd by similr prblms in the wrld (find fd & mtes), convergence btwn thries of humn & anml lrnin: thries of humn cargrstn drw on simlt thries frm anml lrnin, parallel effcts obsrvd in humns & othr anmls 3 qs abt lrnin: wht is lrnt: undrlyin assctv structurs tht giv ris to th bhvr (not th actl bhvr), wht r the cndtns of lrnin, hw is lrnin trnslatd into prfrmnc (hw ds acctn lead to bhvr) Typs of PC: pigeon autoshpin (lght fllwd by fd: strts to pck light: pcks at stmlus): nt an example of I.C as dnt nd to pck screen to obtain fd Appetitv.cndtnin: feed up rats: reduc fd: restrict so only hv fd onc a day: train thm to cllct food frm fd well: strt to ply tone whn fd is drppd: aftr awhl rat strts to go to fd well in anticiptn of fd bein delivrd: measur by hw mny times door is pushd opn Aversv cndtnin: tonefoot shock: freeze (use 4 anxty rsrch as apptv cndtn wldnt hv sme effc) Flavour-avrsn: reduc watr intke (neophobic so wll only drink sucrose if thirsty): giv sucrs & induc illnss (lithium chloride): tst thm nxt day: dnt wnt to drnk sucrs as assct flavr & illnss Conceptual nrvs systm solid arrws: lnks r alrdy thr, dottd: chng as rslt of exprnc stimuli detectd by sensry registr tht excits a reprsntn of evnt in memry systm: actvtn of US reprsntatn leds to activatn of rspnse generatn & thus elicits a UR: repeatd pairin of CS & US=2 pssble chngs tht cn tke plac: 1.CS-R cnnctn (S-R thry) dvlpL whn CS prsrntd directly excites US rspns centr & leads to rspnse tht mimcs 1 elicitd by US 2. Cnnctn btwn CS&US reprsntatns: prsnt CS excits rprsntn of US whch excts rspns: Colwill & Motzkin 94: tone snglnd fd lght sngld sucrose sltn – thn gvn lithium chlrd aftr fd = aversn: mor wllin to apprch magzn durin lght thn tone: cnstnt w. prpsl tht P.C rslts in grwth of CS-US cnnctns: tne actvts rprsnt of fd thts aversn = unlkl to exct mgzn actvty / S-R wld prsps trnin rslts in asctn btwn tne & lght & apprch mgzn: shld mve twrd mag if ethr stmli prstntd (featr of th thry= rspns elctd by stmls cn onl be altrd by mkin anml prfm a dff rspns in its prsnc) bt smtms wnt to mgzn in tne=som S-R ascctn frmd? Wht is lrnt S-S (stimls-stmls) assctn: mem of tone assctd w. mem of fd: apprch motor prgrm actvatd thrgh actvtn of memry of fd S-R (stmls-rspns) ass: dirct lnk btwn evnt of intrst (tone) & rspsns: memry of tone (stmls) assctd w. motor pgrm 4 apprchn site of fd dlvry S-R thrists attmp expln bhvr frm premis tht all lrnin ivlvs formtn of S-R cnnctns (PC: cnnctn btwn rep of CS & cmpnent of rspns elicitd by US) Hull 43: satisfctn is reductn in anmls needs: actvat motvatnl ste (drive): S-R cnnctn strength whn rspsns redcs driv Guthrie 35: prncpl of contiguity: pairin of stmls & rspns suffcnt 4 lrnin sr cnnctn (only lst rspns is cnnctd to stmli) Tolman: IC rslts in bhvr thts goal drctd (whras S-R thry asserts tht anmls jst lrn to rspnd in the prsnc of a gvn set of stmli: s ts tht whn CS & US r rptdly paird anmls wll lrn to prfrm rspns whn CS is prsntd: dsnt assme any addtnly lrnin tht wld allw anmls to expct tht US will fllw CS: So Tolman 32 rejctd the S-R accnt & propsd 4 PC anmls lrn CS-US cnnct whr CS ws sgn 4 th US & 4 IC: lrn S-R-US cnnctn: S-R lnk fllwd by lnk tht allws anml to knw consqncs of its actns whlst rspndin: dprtur frm S-R thry as allws anmls antcptd stmuli tht wll b prsntd to thm: acqur knwldg rthr thn rspns: apprch is cog rthr thn bhvrl. Lts of evdnc tht PC cn rslt in formtn of CS-US ass & evdnc tht durn IC anmls lrn rltnshp btwn rspns & cnsqnc. Nt abl to expln all PC effcts in terms of SR lrnin: mor cogntv explntns dvlpd Discrimint btwn SS & SR Holland & Straub 79: 1.nois> fd 2.fd (sme as 1.)> illns s tst.nois> if S-S: frmd mem btwn nois & fd so assctd mem btwn nois, fd & ilnns (frm chain of mem) integrates stmli so wnt go to fd well as mch as cntrl (who recvd ilnss awhl aftr fd in 2.) bt if SR: nois evks rspns tht was prv evkd by fd: nois is lnkd to rspns prgrm: dnt infer tht nois rslts in ilnss as no term in cmmn to integrate thm: dnt pair nois w. fd: pair nois w. rspns so wld go to fd well go to fd well lss thn cntrl (prdctd by SS) bt kp rspndn a bit (nt at 0: residual rspns) y: advrse cndtn prcdur my nt hv been effctv? Frm SS & SR assctn? Holland 90: elctin memry of avrsn fd w. tone= bhvr sme as if actly prsnt (aversv reactn): evdnc acqur SS US-mem devaluatn Holland 81: 1.exprmntl & cntrl: tne-fd & lght-nthin (assctn btwn tne & fd) 2.exp: tne>ilnss & lght>nthin (mem of fd is evkd by tne>fd so assc btwn fd-illnss dvlps) cntrl: tne>nthin & lght>ilnss (lght dsnt evke mem of fd so no pairin): exp shwd lss fd cnsumptn: devlpd advrsn to fd: CS-evoked rprsntatns of evnts (tne provkd rep of fd) cn substitute 4 evnts thmslvs in formatn of new assctns Sensory precndtnin Rescorla & Cunningham 78: prsrntd sensry evnts tht dnt provk bhvr: rts givn 2 2-elmnt cmpnds (sugar& acid & salt&bitter), thn givn poison aftr acid bt nt aftr bittr: givn othr elmnts of cmpnds: drnk mor of elmnt wer paird elmnt hdnt bn posnd: endnc tht rts lrnd assctn btwn flvors: mk 1 advrsv=othr 1 advrsv Fudim 78: rts gvn bana&salt & almond& sugr: induc salt need: ate mor bana thn almnd at tst: ban assc w. salt Assctns cn devlp btwn 2 stmli evn whn nthr hs UC prprties Exprimntl extnc: 1.salt&bitter 2.extnctn grp: jst bitter (brks asscn btwn S&B) 3.induc slt need: extinct grp drinks lss bittr (sme as cntrl tht rcvd SorB at 1.) thn exprmntl IC S-R: mem of stimls (sight of lever) assctd w. motor prgrm 4 prssin levr (rspsns): cnnctn btwn lookn at levr & prss in it: no idea y doin smthn jst habit R-O (rspns-otcme): motr prgrm 4 prssn lvr assctd w. otcme Discrm btwn SR & RO (R-US) Colwill and Rescorla (85) 1.levr prss>fd & chain pll&sucrose 2. fd>illnss (no longr valuabl) & sucrs>nthin: rte of chn pulln is hghr (chn assctd w. smthn valuabl): spprt for R-O: otcm devalud so lss lkly to prfrm rspns bt residual rspns to levr prss: my also b SR: bt nd cntrl cndtn to sy whthr ths relfct prvs instrmntl trnin or wld hv occrd w.out trnin (SR: wld hv stll prssd lvr as jst habt of seein it & prssin no assc to rewrd valu): sggst reinfrcr is encoded in IL (instrmntl lrnin) BT Adams & Dickson 81: simlr exprmnt to C&R 85 bt fnd if gvn initl extensv instrmntl trnin = little evdnc of effct of devlntn= R-O assctn undrlir erly stges of instmntl trin bt extnd prctic trnsfrms into a S-R habit: debte ovr why or if it alwys tkes plc Thus evdnc tht the otcme is encoded in IL bt dnt tell hw encodin tks plac, cld b: 1.assctn btwn R-O frmd & executn of rspns depnd on otcme valu or: 2.assctn btwn contextual stmli & reinfrcr: cntextl stmli thn elicits expctatn of reinfrcr: bcmes prt of stimuls cmplx tht cntrls rspns by SR mchnsm ( Trapold & Overmier 72 ) or jst motivtes th I rspns ( Rescorla & Solomon 67) Inhbitory cndtnin: stimuli signls evnt wll nt occur (illumntd key signls no fd) gd evdnc tht PC an assctn btwn mem of CS & US is critical, IC: assctn btwn rspns & otcme (knw th goal) US nds to b unexpected as CS nds anmls full attn for cndtionin to b succsful Cndtns of lrnin Temporal contiguity: thngs actv in brain at sme time nt ncessry in all cndtnin (flavour advrsn) & nt sffcnt engh 4 lrnin to tk plce Modls of lrnin hv to expln ovrshadwin, blckin & contingency to b viable: ech of ths effcs invlv failurs of cntguity to rslt in cndtnd rspndin & thus failrs of cntgty to rslt in assctn formtn: cndtnd rspns is nt jst abt gluin togthr thngs tht hppn sme tim (Hebbian lrnin is nt alwys rght) Condtnd suppression prdcdur CSP: classcl cndtnin prcdur tht rslts in reductn in freqncy of CR due to prsnc of stmuls tht was prevsly assctd w. pain (pvlvn pairin of CS w, aversive US (shock): usful 4 stdyin acqustion & extnctn of fear Overshadowin in CSP rat in box> prss lvr & gets fd evry so oftn> hear tne accompanied by shck= as anmls lrns tne predicts shck begin to stop prssn levr durin tne Supprssn ratio=no of rspns durin tne divided by no of rspns durin tne & proceedin period shck (stop rspndin durin lght= shws supprsn ratio) ovrshdwin: lght&noise> shck (if temporal cntgty is all tht nded to frm assctn thn shld b no diff btwn 2 cndtnd as sme no of trials & occr sme tim so shld prduc sme lvl of fear) BT cntrl=mor fear thn ovrshdin whn lght prsntd ( lght dsnt elicit as mch fear: hs to b mor thn temprl cntgty) Y: Rescorla-Wagner 72 thry predicts tht ech compound gains less associative strength (AS) thn if paird separately as cndtnin ceases whn cmbind AS is = to l so nithr alne wll rch this valu bt wld if paird indivdlly= prsenc of 1 CS rslts in ovrshwdin w. othr: ths effc 1st rprtd by Pavlov 27 & demnstrtd mny tims snc (Kamin 69) Blockin in CSP Kamin 68, 69 blcking grp: 1.lght>shck / 2.cntrl&blckin: nois&lght >shck test: blckin shw no fear: stll prssd lvr whn nois was prsntd bt cntrl shwd fear (blckin grp lrnt tht lght prdictd shck so wernt surprsd by shck in 2.: ths asscnt blckd lrnin assctn btwn nois & shck): Kamin cncld tht assctv cnnctn will only occr is US is unprdictd / if temprl cntguity was all thts imprnt thn cndtns shldnt diffr as prsntd at sme time Contingency effcs in CSP Rescorla 68: 3 grps: hgh (tne fllwd by shck .4 of time, shck nevr prsntd alne 0), med (tne>shck .4 / shck alne .2) & lw cntngncy (tne>shk .4 / shck alne .4): if tmprl cntguty btwn tne & shck is all thts imprtnt shld prfrm sme as all cndtns recv 4 prsntnts of tne>shck BT nt th case: hghr cntingcy=mor fearfl of tne/ lw cntgcy=no fear (hsnt lrnt assctn btwn tne & shck evn thgh thr prsntd at sme time= imprtnc of cntngncy: whn prb of US is hghr durin CS thn at othr times excitatory cndtnin occrs bt whn prb is lwr (neg CS-US cntngncy inhibry cndtnin occrs (Hearst & Franklin 77: prb of fd ws grtr in absnc thn prnsc of illumntd key) RW ptnd out tht cntxt cn b a stmuls: so 4 R 68 cntxt cld hv gaind AS w. shck OR cld be attn: whn US prsntd alne anmls attnds to varty of stmls othr thn CS cld= falr to attnd to CS durn tstin Role of surprise in AL Kamin 69: sggstd tht “4 an assctv cnnctn to occur it my b necssry 4 th US to instigate sme ‘mentl wrk’ whch wll occur only is US is unprdctd” Ovrshwdin in trms of surprise Cntrl grp: 1.lght>shck (no reasn to prdct shck so v suprsing: lrge incrs in assctn btwn lght&shck 2.lght (b sme reasn to prdct tht shck wll occr (wll prvke mem of shck) so whn delivrd th shck is lss surps in & incr in AS is lss dramatic: explns th negatvly accrltin lrnin curve Ovrshdw grp: 1.lght&noise> shck (shck is unprdctd so is surprsin: lrge incrs in assctv link btwn lght&shck & nois&shck ) 2.shck lss surpisin as prdctd by 2 thngs: lght & tne (incrs in assctv lnk of lght-shck & nois-shck will b lss dratic thn cntrl as shck is lss surpsin) test: lght dsnt elcit as mch fear in ovrshdwin grp as didnt caus as mch surprs durin trials Blckin in trms of surprs: stg 1: blckin grp acqurs assctn btwn lght & shck 2: whn nois&lght compnd prsntd lght wll actvte a memry of shck= unsurprsin (assctn btwn nois & shck nt acqurd: nois prvke lttl/no fear at test Contingency effc in trms of surprs whn prsntd th shck alne the contextual stmli (box) will bcme assctd w. shck= prsntatn of shck on cndtnin trial w. tne is lss surprsin Rescorla & Wagner 72 modl: advntges: precise & allws novel & tstable predctns to b drawn & testd: pssbl to prdct CR wll b strngr aftr 1 typ of trtmnt thn anthr whch cn thn b tstd w. exprnmnt,relatd to thries of humn cogntn, prvds rlatvly accurte accnt 4 range of findins (bt is incmplte), prmtd dvlpmnt of othr thrys (P&H). Modl prdcts order of whch training mthds wll b mor succsfl (nt specific valus jst ordr), cndtnin rslts in grwth of assctn btwn internl rprsntns of CS & US: RW mdl assms strngth of ths assctn dtrmins strngth of CR: Use dV=a.b(l–SV) to prdct chng in AS of CS-US assctn: dV= chng in (d, delta) assctv strngth (V): max V is dtrmind by size of US: Vs valu is rflctd by size of cndtnd rspns (hw mch chng get in assctn btwen stimls & rspns on trail by trail basis: if V is lrg=CR on nxt trail wll b a lot strngr thn on currnt trial a= (alpha) salience or intnsity of CS (strngth of tne) a is fixd 4 givn CS: dsnt chng durin cndtnin & has valu btwn 0 & 1 b= (beta) salnce or intnty of US (strngth of shck) b is fixd 4 gvn US l= (lambda) max levl of AS tht givn US (shck) cn support: fixd 4 givn US SV= sum of (S, sigma) all ASs of th CSs tht r prsnt.: SV cn vry as trainin proceeds: evntully SV will equal l so (l–SV) will equl 0= no further chngs in AS wll b pssble: th equatn prdcts th grwth in assctv strgnth (& thus incrs in CR strngth will b extrmly rapid on intial trials bt thn dclin & evntlly cease: neg acclrtin lrnin curv. Modl supposes tht th chang in assctv strngth (dV) btwn memry of CS (tne) & US (shck) is detrmnd by th diffrnc btw nth max possbl AS supprtabl by th US ( l) & th combind AS of all th stmuli tht r prsnt ( SV): ths diffrnc is multipld by th prduct of th salienc of CS (a) & US (b): diffrnc btwn wht cld b supprtd & wher u r on tht trial Accrdin to RW thry the CS & US hv to b prsrnt (hv to equl mor thn 0 othrws this wld eql 0) 4 lrnin to hppn Suprs: th equatn charctrises th role of surpris in cndtinin: size of chng in assctv strngth dV is influencd by diffrnc btwn wht is expctd on tht trial SV & wht happns l (diffrnc=surprs): as AS grws th CS bcmes a mor accrte predctor of th US US intensity dnt nd precis valu of l jst nd to say it wll b greatr 4 strngr US: pairin a CS w. a strng US shld rslt in strngr CS thn if paird w. weakr US: reasonably cnsistnt w. stdies (Annau & Kamin 61) CS intensity: cndtnin prgrss mor rapidly w. strngr CS, strng CS a is clsr to 1, chngin a alters th rate (speed) of cndtnin bt nt the ultimate lvl of cndtnd rspndin (jst th speed as fnd by Kamin & Schaub 63: 3 grps cndtnd w. sme magnitude of US bt diff intensities of wht nois 4 US: rte of cndtn was drctly rltd to CS intnsty: as AS of CS grws is mor accrt prdctr of US) Applctn of RW mdl to simpl cndtnin w. a lght dV=a.b(l–SV) assmin ths valus: a.b=.20, l=100 (max lvl of AS tht givn US (shck) cn support, SV=V light bcaus light is th only stmuls prsntd on ech cndtinin trial: 1 st 4 lght>shck trials: 1.AS is 0 bcaus anml hs no assctn btwn lght & shck dVlight(trial 1)=.20 (100–0) =20, 2.AS is nw 20: dVlight(trial 2)=.20 (100–20) =16 3. AS is 36 (20+16): dVlight(trial 3)=.20 (100–36) =12.8, 4. dVlight(trial 4)=.20 (100–48.8)=10.24 Note tht: SV (V light) incres acrss trials ( 0, 20, 36, 48.8), dVlight on ech trial r of unequal sizes (20, 16, 12.8, 10.24), V light apprchs asymptote (l=100) accrdin to a negtvly accrlrtd functn (i.e., 0, 20, 36, 48.8): gaps gt smllr Wht hppns durin compound cndtnin genrl assmptns of RW mdl: 1.nois+lght>shck trials rslt in grwth of sepert assctns btwn nois>shck & lght>shck 2.AS of compound (SVNL)is equal to sum of ASs of its cmpnents (VN + VL) 3.AS of indivdl stmli wll b added tgthr implcatns: 1.chng in AS of 1 stmuls on givn trial wll b influncd by ASs of othr stmuli tht r also prsnt 2.seprtly trn nois>shck & lght>shck thn prsrnt 2 tgthr shld see lrgr cndtnd rspns thn alone, chng in Durin cmpnd cndtnin Trial 1 Lght: AS strts at 0: dVlight(trial 1)=.20 (100–SV) =.20 (100-(0+0)) =20 Trial 1 Noise: dVnoise(trial 1)=.20 (100–SV) =.20 (100-(0+0))=20 Trial 2 Light: dVlight(trial 2)=.20 (100– SV) =.20 (100-(20+20)) =12 Trial 3 Light: dVlight(trial 3)=.20 (100–SV) =.20 (100-(32+32))=7.2 Trial 3 Noise: dVnoise(trial 3)=.20 (100–SV) =.20 (100-(32+32)) =7.2 A s cnsqnc of 1st 3 trials th AS of ech stmls is 39.2 (20+12+7.2) so AS of cmpnd is 78.4: whn it rchs 100 lrnin ceases w. VLight & VNoise bein 50 (hlf of amnt if only 1 stmlus) Surprs is no lngr dtrmind by hw well a singl CS predicts th occrnc of US bt nw by th diffrnc btwn hw well all th stmlui prsntd on a trial cllctvly prdct th US Ovrshwin: cmbind assctv strngth eql l so ech gain lss AS Y ds blckin occr 4 blckin cndtn stge 1 rslts in VLight=100 so whn noise+light cmpnd is prsntd in stge 2 SVN+L=100 Trial 1 Stage 2 Light: dVlight(trial 1) =.20 (100–SV) =.20 (100-(100+0)) =0 Trial 1 Stage 2 Noise: dVnoise(trial 1)=.20 (100–SV) =.20(100–(100+0)) =0 AS of lght is alrdy at asymptotic value of l (100) due to stge 1: nois cn nvr b mor thn 0: RW mdl prdcts blckin occrs bcaus pretrainin w. nois ensurs th US is accrtly prdctd by th cmpnd (lck of suprssns s of US will prvnt th devlpmnt of lght-US assctn Conclsn ovrshwdin, blcin & cntngncy shw tht AL isnt jst drivn by contiguity: sggsts US hs to b surprsn to prdc lrnin Siegel & Allan 96 shwd hw RW thry has enhncd out undrstndin in humns of vernal lrnin, category formtn, causl judmnts, reasnin, socl psychlgy, prcptn & physiologicl regulatn Surprise & Cndtnin: Conditioning with a single CS (controlled stimulus) Kehoe et al (1994) – light paired with shock to rabbit’s cheek – CR = eye-blink: Likelihood of response (eye-blink) was at first low – no prior light-shock pairings: Then rapid increase in magnitude of the response: This diminished gradually as training progressed until there was no further increase in the measure of the CR = LEARNING CURVE & pair eye blnk w. lght & tbe: mor likely to rcrd ey blnk durin cmpnd thn eithr elmnts Theories of lrnin: So far cnsidrd excitatory assctns bt evdnc also sggst memry of 1 stimuls cn inhibit anthr thrgh lrnin: inhibitory lrnin IL RW sts tht whn discrepancy btwn expctd & wht actly hppns is lrg mch wll b lrnt bt whn smll littl is added to wht is knwn: increase in AS ( dV) of a stimulus (e.g., a light) tht occrs as a reslt of trial is dtrmind by the diffrnc btwn max AS tht th US (e.g., shock) cn support ( l; what happens) & the totl AS of all stimuli prsntd on that trial (SV; wht th animl expcts to hppn) w. ths diffrnc bein multpld by th prdct of th fixd lrnin rate parameters 4 th light & shck (a.b) Blckin in CSP Kamin 68, 69: thrgh opernt cndtnin rats trnd to prss levr 4 fd thn intrdcd to CS (lgh or nois) fllwd by US (Shck) as thy lrn assctn btwn CS & US rate of levr prssin declins (rate of prssin measurs th strength of cndtn...