A&P 1 - Final Exam Review Questions PDF

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Final Review Ch. 14 Remember ROM  Rotation o It’s the movement in which part of the body is pivoted or revolves around a single long axis.  Ball-and-socket  Hip & Shoulder  Can be described as internal or external rotation  Flexion (flex) o Decreases the angle between bones and bends or folds one part on another. o Can also occur when an extended structure is returned to the anatomical position.  Extension (extend) o Increases the angle between bones and returns apart from its flexed position to its anatomical position.  Hyperextension (REALLY extend) o Stretching or extending a part beyond its anatomical position.  Plantar flexion (point toes) o increases the angle between the top of the foot and the front of the leg.  Dorsiflexion (flex toes – looks like a dorsal fin; praying hands) o Decreases, the angle between the top of the foot and the front of the leg.  Palmar flexion (hand down) o Decreasing the angle between the palm and the anterior forearm  Abduction (away) o Moves a part away from the median plane of the body  Adduction (add) Moves a part toward the median plane of the body  Supination (hand up like holding a soup bowl) o Turns the hand palm side up Page 1 of 35

Final Review  Pronation (hand down like a pro basketball player bouncing a ball) o Turns the hand palm side down  Retraction (move jaw back out) o Moves it backward without changing the angle  Protraction (move jaw forward) o Moves a part forward without changing the angle  Elevation (up) o Moves a part up  Depression (down) o Lowers it.  Circumduction (circle) o Moves a part so that its distal end moves in a circle.  Inversion (inside) o Sole of foot towards the midline of the body  Eversion (outside) o Sole of foot away the midline of the body Rul esf ordet ermi ni ngmuscl ef unct i on/ act i on: o) 1.Whent hemuscl epassesi nf r ontof(ant er i ort t hej oi nt ,i tf unct i onsi nFLEXI ON.Fl exi on decr easest heangl eoft hej oi nt . 2.Whent hemuscl epassesi nbehi nd(post er i ort o) t hej oi nt ,i tf unct i onsi nEXTENSI ON.Ext ensi on i ncr easest heangl eoft hej oi nt . 3.Whent hemuscl epassesont hel at er alsi deoft he j oi nt ,i tf unct i onsi nABDUCTI ON.Abduct i onact s t omoveabodypar tawayf r om t hemi dl i ne. he 4.Whent hemuscl epassesont hemedi alsi deoft j oi nt ,i tf unct i onsi nADDUCTI ON.Adduct i onact s t omoveabodypar tt owar dt hemi dl i ne.

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Final Review

Pictures of ROM: Neck

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Final Review

Thoracic and Lumbar Spine

Shoulder

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Final Review Elbow

Hand and Wrist

Hip

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Final Review Foot and Ankle

Ch. 15 & 16 Know the Posterior Muscles

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25 24

2 3 4

23

5 6

7 22 8 21

10

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9 11

19

12

18

13

17 Fibularis

14

Fibularis

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16

Ch. 17 Page 6 of 35

Final Review Know everything about muscle contraction Step 1:  Neurotransmitters are sent down the nerve cells (motor neuron), pass through the synaptic cleft, and into the receptors. Step 2  The neurotransmitter “bounces” or impulses down the sarcolemma until it enters a T tubule. Step 3  Once it enters the T tubule, it enters the sarcoplasmic reticulum where the calcium is being stored. Step 4  Once the neurotransmitters hit the inside of the T tubule, this makes the calcium ions flood the sarcoplasm. Step 5  The calcium then binds to Troponin in the thin filaments. Step 6  The combination of these two makes Tropomyosin move so that the active site on actin is visible Step 7  The myosin heads (in the thick filaments) binds to the active site on actin which produces the contraction along with ATP. o The myosin head temporarily forms a cross bridge between the thick and thin filaments. o After forming cross bridges, the myosin heads bend with great force, literally pulling the thin filaments past them; this is often called the “power stroke” of myosin. Step 8  The muscle relaxes and ATP turns into ADP + P, calcium is stripped from Troponin and the process repeats

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Final Review Ch. 19 Know everything about action potential & what happens during the refractory period? Action Potential (nerve impulse):  An action potential is the membrane potential of a neuron that is conducting an impulse. o An action potential is also known as a nerve impulse. o It is an electrical fluctuation that travels along the surface of a neuron’s plasma membrane.  Mechanism that produces the action potential step-by-step: 1. When an adequate stimulus triggers stimulus-gated Na+ channels to open, allowing Na+ to diffuse rapidly into the cell, a local depolarization is produced 2. As the threshold potential is reached, voltage-gated Na+ channels open 3. As more Na+ enters the cell through voltage-gated Na+ channels, the membrane depolarizes even further 4. The magnitude of the action potential peaks (at +30 mV) when voltage-gated Na+ channels close 5. Repolarization begins when voltage-gated K+ channels open, allowing outward diffusion of K+ 6. After a brief period of hyperpolarization, the resting potential is restored by the sodium-potassium pump and the return of ion channels of their resting state.

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 The action potential never moves backward because of the refractory period  The conduction is nondecremental. o At the peak of the action potential, the plasma membrane’s polarity is the reverse of the RMP o The reversal in polarity causes electrical current to flow between the site of the action potential and the adjacent regions of membrane; this triggers voltage-gated Na+ channels in the next segment to open  This cycle continues, producing continuous conduction.

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Final Review Difference between two refractory periods (absolute and relative)  The refractory period is a brief period during which a local area of an axon’s membrane resists restimulation. o Absolute refractory period:  Second action potential “absolutely” cannot be initiated  Brief period during which a local area of a neuron’s membrane resists restimulation and will not respond to a stimulus, no matter how strong  The absolute refractory period lasts approximately 0.5 millisecond. o Relative refractory period:  Recovery period  A stronger than normal stimulus is needed to initiate a new action potential  Time during which the membrane is repolarizing and restoring the resting membrane potential  The relative refractory period is the few milliseconds after the absolute refractory period, during which the membrane responds only to a very strong stimulus.

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Final Review Ch. 20 What is significant about the subarachnoid space?  In life, the subarachnoid space is filled with cerebrospinal fluid and contains the large blood vessels that supply the brain and spinal cord.  The subarachnoid space is under the arachnoid and outside the pia mater.  This space contains a significant amount of lubricating serous fluid. What is the difference in descending & ascending tracts?  Ascending tracts o Conduct sensory impulses up the cord to the brain o Five important ascending tracts:  Lateral spinothalamic tract  Crude touch, pain, and temperature  Anterior spinothalamic tracts  Crude touch and pressure  Fasciculi gracilis and cuneatus tracts  Discriminating touch and conscious sensation of position and movement of body parts.  Spinocerebellar tracts  Subconscious kinesthesia  Spinotectal tracts  Touch that triggers visual reflexes.

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Final Review  Descending tracts o Conduct motor impulses down the cord from the brain to the periphery. o Six important descending tracts:  Lateral corticospinal tracts  Voluntary movement  Contraction of individual or small groups of muscles o Particularly those moving hands, fingers, feet, and toes on opposite sides of the body.  Anterior corticospinal tracts  Same as preceding except mainly muscles on same side of body.  Reticulospinal tracts  Helps maintain posture during skeletal muscle movements.  Rubrospinal tracts  Transmits impulses that coordinate body movements.  Maintenance of posture.  Tectospinal tracts  Head and neck movement related to visual reflexes.  Vestibulospinal tracts  Coordination of posture and balance. **HELP REMEMBERING THE NAMES AND WHICH TRACT BELONGS WHERE**  Naming the tracts o If the tract name begins with “spino” (as in spinocerebellar), the tract is a sensory tract delivering information from the spinal cord to the cerebellum (in this case). o If the tract name ends with “spinal” (as in vestibulospinal), the tract is a motor tract that delivers information from the vestibular apparatus (in this case) to the spinal cord. Page 14 of 35

Final Review

Ch. 21 Know all cranial nerves (name, number, function, and if its motor/sensory/both) **REMEMBER** I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII

O O O T T A F V G V A H

S S M M B M B S B B M M

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Final Review Ch. 22 Know how the receptors of the autonomic nervous system works

Ch. 23 Know the difference in receptors (Pg. 516-517)  Mechanoreceptors o Activated by mechanical stimuli that in some way “deform” or change the position of the receptor to generate receptor potential. o Most mechanoreceptors are found in the skin and are needed for the sense of touch. o Mechanoreceptors are also found in the inner ear, where they are needed for the senses of hearing and balance.  Examples:  Pressure applied to the skin or to blood vessels  Pressure caused by stretch  Pressure in muscle, tendon, or lung tissue Page 18 of 35

Final Review  Chemoreceptors o Activated by the amount or changing concentration of certain chemicals, such as taste and smell.  Our taste and smell senses are dependent on these receptors. o They are found mainly in taste buds on the tongue — where they are needed for the sense of taste — and in nasal passages, where they are needed for the sense of smell. o Some also detect the concentration of specific chemicals such as CO2 and blood glucose.  Thermoreceptors o Activated by changes in temperature.  They are found mostly in the skin and detect temperatures that are above or below body temperature.  Nociceptors o Activated by intense stimuli that may damage tissue  The sensation produced is one of pain.  The cause of the intense stimuli may be:  A toxic chemical  Intense light  Intense sound  Intense pressure  Intense heat o They are found in internal organs, as well as on the surface of the body.  Photoreceptors o Are found only in the eye and are needed for the sense of vision. o They respond to light stimuli if the intensity is great enough to generate a receptor potential.

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Final Review  Osmoreceptors o Concentrated in the hypothalamus and sense of levels of osmotic pressure in body fluids. o They are important for detecting changes in the concentration of electrolytes (osmolarity) in extracellular fluids and stimulating the hypothalamic thirst center.  Exteroceptors o On or near body surface o Often called cutaneous receptors  Examples of exteroceptors include:  Those that detect pressure, touch, pain, and temperature.  Visceroceptors o Located internally, often within body organs (viscera) o Provide body with information about internal environment  Examples of visceroceptors include:  Those that detect pressure, stretch, chemical changes, hunger, and thirst.  Proprioceptors o Special type of visceroceptors o Location limited to skeletal muscle, joint capsules, and tendons o Provide information on body movement, orientation in space, and muscle stretch o Two types: Tonic and phasic  Provide positional information about the body  The firing of the nonadapting tonic proprioceptors allows us to locate, for example, our arm, hand, or foot at rest without having to look.  Phasic proprioceptors are rapidly adapting receptors, so they are triggered only when there is a change in position.

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Final Review  Phasic proprioceptors therefore permit us to feel the changing position of our body parts during continuous movement.

Ch. 24 Know basic cranial nerves of special sensing (taste, visual, balance, hearings, etc.)  I - Olfactory nerve. o Bipolar cells are also the receptor cells for smell.  II – Optic nerve. o Bipolar cells in the retina connect the photo receptors to other nerve cells of the retina (which are actually part of the brain)  **REMEMBER**  Motor for Eye o SO4 + LR6  AR3  Superior Oblique innervates CN4  Lateral Rectus innervates CN6  All the Rest innervates CN6  VIII – Vestibulocochlear nerve. o Bipolar cells bodies lie in the vestibulocochlea nerve and connect the receptors to the brain. Page 21 of 35

Final Review  VII, IX, X all contain taste fibers. o Glossopharyngeal  Top 1/3 of tongue o Facial  Bottom 2/3 of tongue  Includes taste buds o Hypoglossal  Motor of tongue

Hypoglossal (XII)

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Final Review Ch. 25 Understand the second messengers and how they work (Pg. 562, 563, & 564)

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Final Review  Mechanism of steroid hormone action o Steroid hormones are lipid-soluble, and their receptors are normally found in the target cell's cytosol o After a steroid hormone molecule has diffused into the target cell, it binds to a receptor molecule to form a hormone receptor complex o Mobile-receptor hypothesis The hormone passes into the nucleus, where it binds to mobile receptor and activates a certain gene sequence to begin transcription of mRNA  Newly formed mRNA molecules move into the cytosol, associate with ribosomes, and begin synthesizing protein molecules that produce the effects of the hormone o Steroid hormones regulate cells by regulating production of certain critical proteins o The amount of steroid hormone present determines the magnitude of a target cell's response o Because transcription and protein synthesis take time, responses to steroid hormones are often slow

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Final Review  The second messenger mechanism—also known as the fixedmembrane-receptor hypothesis. o Second Messenger Systems are called that because the hormone (the 1st messenger) doesn't enter the cell (too big, usually) but initiates production of a chemical messenger within the cell (second messenger). o A nonsteroid hormone molecule acts as a “first messenger” and delivers its chemical message to fixed receptors in the target cell’s plasma membrane o The “message” is then passed by way of a G protein into the cell where a “second messenger” triggers the appropriate cellular changes o The second messenger mechanism operates much more quickly than the steroid mechanism. o Second messenger mechanism:  Produces target cell effects that differ from steroid hormone effects in several important ways:  The effects of the hormone are amplified by the cascade of reactions  There are a variety of second messenger mechanism examples: o cAMP  Made from ATP  Examples:  Epinephrine  Norepinephrine  Glucagon  LH  FSH  TSH  Calcitonin  PTH  ADH

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Final Review o IP3  Inositol triphosphate  Examples:  Adrenaline (a1)  Vasopressin o cGMP  Cyclic guanosine monophosphate  Examples:  ANP  Nitric Oxide o Calcium-calmodulin mechanisms  Other hormones produce their effects by triggering the opening of calcium channels in the target cell’s membranes  Binding of a hormone to a fixed membrane receptor activates a chain of membrane proteins (G protein and phosphodiesterase, PIP2) that in turn trigger the opening of calcium channels in the plasma membrane.  Calcium ions that enter the cytosol when the channels open bind to an intracellular molecule called calmodulin.  The Calcium-calmodulin complex thus formed acts as a second messenger, influencing the enzymes that produce the target cell’s response.  Examples:  Epinephrine  Norepinephrine  Angiotensin II  ADH, GRH, TRH

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Final Review

Ch. 26 Know all of the hormones (where they are headed; what their function is)

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Final Review  GO FIND REX, MAKE GOOD SEX  Zona glomerulosa – produces mineralocorticoids o Mineralocorticoids  Mineral – meaning the influence they have on certain minerals, such as sodium and potassium  Cortex – meaning made in the adrenal cortex  Steroid – meaning steroid hormone  Zona fasciculata – produces glucocorticoids o Glucose – meaning the influence they have on glucose metabolism o Cortex – meaning made in the adrenal cortex o Steroid – meaning steroid hormone  Zona reticularis – produces sex (androgens) o Androgens  Sex hormones

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Final Review Know the disorders of the Endocrine System

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