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AP US Government and Politics Review UNIT I: THE CONSTITUTIONAL UNDERPINNINGS ➢

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A. Enlightenment Philosophies: Major Enlightenment Philosophers: ○ Thomas Hobbes: ■ Humans left on their own=chaos/violence ■ State of nature=”solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short” ■ Best way to protect life is to give total power to an absolute monarch bc man cannot be trusted to rule himself ○ John Locke: ■ Life liberty and property are natural rights granted by God ■ Duty of all government to respect and protect natural rights ● Failure to do so=right of revolution ○ Charles de Montesquieu: ■ Greatly influenced founders ■ Separation of power into 3 branches of government ○ Jean-Jacques Rousseau: ■ Only good government is one that was freely formed with the consent of the people 3 forms of Democracy: ○ Participatory Democracy: ■ Broad participation in politics at all socioeconomic levels ○ Pluralist Democracy: ■ Organized group-based activism by citizens with common political interests ○ Elite Democracy: ■ Discourages participation by majority of citizens ■ Power given to educated/wealthy Enlightenment had big influence on Founding Fathers ○ Promoted Republicanism ■ Individual liberty ■ God-given rights ■ All governmental power is derived from the people ■ Rejects aristocracy ■ Encourages broad participation in political affairs America=Representative Democracy ○ Elected officials represent group of people ○ Some direct democracy ■ Referendums Popular Sovereignty ○ Authority of government created/sustained by consent of its people through elected representatives

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➢ The Declaration of Independence ○ Majority of document outlines injustices by King George III against colonies ○ Used as template by other nations when declaring independence from other colonial powers B. The Weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation ➢ Pros of Articles ○ Establishes federalism ■ States and government share governing responsibilities ○ Negotiated treaty that ended the Revolutionary War ○ Established Northwest Ordinance ■ Method by which new states would enter the Union ➢ Weaknesses ○ 1787 ■ Interstate trade in decline ■ Inflation ■ Threat of social disorder ○ Shays’ Rebellion ■ Farmer attacked federal arsenal to protest foreclosure of farms in West ■ Major concern of Constitutional Convention ● Need for stronger central government ■ Frightened statesmen ■ Exposed weaknesses of Articles of Confederation ○ Federal Government under Articles of Confederation ■ Could not draft soldiers ■ Was completely dependent on states for revenue ● Federal gov. not permitted to tax citizens ■ Could not pay off Revolutionary War debt ■ Could not control interstate trade ■ No Supreme Court to interpret law ■ No executive branch to enforce national law ■ No national currency ■ No control over import/export taxes between states ■ Needed unanimity to amend Articles ■ Needed 9/13 state approval to pass legislation ○ CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION NEEDED ■ Constitution created ➢ Constitutional Convention ○ Opposing views ■ Current government weak/ineffective ■ changes =infringement of state/citizens’ rights ○ Delegates agreed that stronger central gov. was necessary but fearful of corruption

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➢ The Great Compromise ○ Aka Connecticut Compromise ○ Compromise between Virginia Plan and New Jersey Plan ■ Virginia Plan ● Strong government ● Each state represented according to population ■ New Jersey Plan ● Each state represented equally ○ End Result: ■ Bicameral legislature with a House of Representatives (population based), and a Senate (equal state representation) ➢ Three-Fifths Compromise: ○ Slaves will count as ⅗ of a person in apportioning seats in HoR ➢ President created by Constitution ○ Enforcer of law ○ 2nd check on power of legislature ■ Veto power ● Overridden by ⅔ Congressional vote ➢ Supreme Court created ○ Arbitrate disputes between: ■ Congress/President ■ States ■ states/central government ➢ Federalists ○ Supporters of Constitution ○ The Federalist Papers ■ Authors: ● Alexander Hamilton ● James Madison ● John Jay ■ Primary source for understanding original intent of founding fathers ■ Attempt to persuade states to ratify Constitution ➢ Constitution lacked Bill of Rights ➢ Anti-Federalist ○ Opponents of Constitution ➢ Brutus No. 1 ○ Began series of Federalist.Anti-Federalist Papers ○ Series of questions about/critiques of proposed Constitution ○ National government under constitution ■ Too much power ■ Standing army=less liberty ■ Representatives would not represent the people

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➢ Federalist No. 10 ○ Author: JAmes Madison ○ Addressed dangers of factionalism ○ How to protect minority factions in a nation founded on majority rule ○ Large republic ensures multiple factions ■ Prevents any one faction taking control ● No suppression of minority opinion ○ Dissent: ■ Naive ■ Nation with multiple factions could never create the “perfect union” ■ Would not survive long ● States’ separate interests would pull them apart ➢ Federalist No. 51 ○ Author: James Madison ○ Separation of powers/checks/balances guarantees no one faction becomes completely dominant ○ Separation of powers makes nat. gov. more efficient ○ Dissent: ■ No perfect way to separate powers ■ Eventually one branch will hold more power ➢ Federalist No. 70 ○ Author: alexander Hamilton ○ Executive branch should consist of a single head: the President ○ Proposed term limits as check on president’s power ○ Dissent: ■ only presidents’ “minions” would influence him ■ Alarmed at prospect of giving military control to single poeron ➢ Federalist No. 78 ○ Author: Alexander Hamilton ○ Addressed Anti-Federalist critiques on the power of federal judiciary ■ Under Constitution, judicial branch will have least power ■ Still has judicial review ● Check on Congress ○ Dissent: ■ Judiciary will overshadow state systems ● State courts will be practically powers ■ Scared by lifetime appointments ● Corruption C. The Constitution as an Instrument of Government ➢ Constitution vague/skeletal in form ○ Blueprint for gov. structure ○ Guide for guaranteeing rights of citizens ○ Allows change to anticipate needs of future generations

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➢ First 3 Articles ○ Sets up separation of powers ■ Legislative Branch ■ Executive Branch ■ Judicial Branch ➢ Necessary and proper clause ○ Article I, Section 8 ○ Allows Congress to “make all laws” that appear “necessary and proper” ○ Aka elastic clause ➢ Executive orders ○ Same effect as law ○ Bypasses Congress in policy making ○ Not mentioned in Constitution ○ Used as part of enforcement duties ➢ Executive Agreements ○ Same elements as treaties ➢ Marbury v. Madison ○ Drastically increased SCOTUS power ○ Judicial review established ■ Ability to overturn laws passed by legislature ➢ Federalism ○ US Gov. form ○ System of government where national/state governments share powers ○ Opposite of confederation ■ System where many decisions are made by an external member-state legislation ○ Important cases ■ McCulloch v. Maryland ● States do not have the power to tax the national bank/fed. gov. ● Reinforced Supremacy clause ■ Gibbons v. Ogden ● State of New York could not grant a steamship company monopoly to operate on interstate waterway ● Increased power over interstate commerce ○ Powers ■ Delegated powers ● Aka enumerated powers ● Only belong to national gov. ● Ex: ○ Printing money ○ Regulating interstate/international trade ○ Making treaties ○ Conducting foreign policy ○ Declaring war

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Reserved powers ● Only belongs to states ● 10th Amendment: include any powers not specifically granted to national gov. Or denied to state gov. ● Ex: ○ Issue licenses ○ Regulation of interstate business ○ Responsibility to run an pay for federal elections ■ Concurrent powers ● Shared by federal/state governments ● Ex: ○ Power to collect taxes ○ Power to build roads ○ Power to operate courts of law ○ Power to borrow money ■ Federal duties ● guarantee states: ○ a republican government ○ Protection from foreign invasion ○ Protection from domestic rebellion ● Prevent states from subdividing/combining w/o COngressional consent ■ State Duties: ● Accept other states licenses/contracts/etc. ○ Full faith and credit clause ● May not refuse police protection/access to courts to a citizen because of state citizenship ○ Privileges and immunities clause ● Must return fugitives to states they have fled from ○ Extradition ➢ Supremacy clause ○ Disputes between federal/state law resolved in favor of federal law ➢ Federalism has changed over time ○ 1st part of history: ■ Governments separate/independent ■ Dual federalism ■ National government: ● International trade ● Road construction ● Harbor construction ● Railway construction ● Distribution of public land in the West ■

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Federal Government does NOT have Power to:

State Government does NOT have Power to:

➢ Suspend writ of habeas corpus except in times of national crisis

➢ Enter into treaties with foreign countries

➢ Pass ex post facto laws or issue bills of attainder

➢ Declare war

➢ Impose Export taxes

➢ Maintain a standing army

➢ Use money from treasury w/o approval of appropriations bill

➢ Print money

➢ Grant titles of nobility

➢ Pass ex post facto laws or bill of attainder ➢ Grant titles of nobility ➢ Impose import or export duties

➢ Grants ○ Categorical grants ■ Aid with strict provisions from federal government on how it will be spent ■ Favored by nationalists ○ Block grants ■ State can use the money however they see fit ■ Favored by States’ Righters Advantages of Federalism

Disadvantages of Federalism

➢ Mass participation

➢ Lack of consistency

➢ Regional autonomy

➢ efficiency

➢ Government a many levels

➢ Bureaucracy

➢ Innovative methods ➢ Separation of Powers ○ Purpose: prevent one factino from taking over ○ Borrowed from Charles de Montesquieu ○ Legislative branch ■ Makes laws ■ Congress

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Executive branch ■ Led by president ■ Enforces laws Judicial Branch ■ Interprets laws A person cannot serve in more than one branch at the same time

➢ System of Checks and Balances ○ Checks and balances are another constitutional safeguard to prevent any one branch from becoming dominant ○ Ex: ■ Nomination of officials ● President chooses nominees; but must be approved by Senate ■ Negotiation of treaties ● President negotiates treaties must only goes into effect with ⅔ Senate approval ■ Enactment of legislation ● Only Congress can pass laws, but President can veto ● Veto overridden by ⅔ Senate vote ● Courts determine constitutionality of law

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D. Amendment Process 1. Amendment introduced to both houses of Congress 2. Approved by ⅔ majority in each 3. ¾ of state legislatures must ratify the amendment a. Number of votes required for ratification determined by states i. Mostreuire simple majority b. Congress can mandate a ratifying convention i. Used for 21st Amendment ➢ Constitutional convention ○ ⅔ state legislature petition Congress E. Amendments ➢ Bill of Rights (December 15, 1791) ○ First Amendment ■ Freedom of religion ■ Free exercise clause ■ Establishment clause ■ Freedom of speech ● Clear and present danger test ○ Speech intended to incite violence/slander not protected ■ Freedom of the press ● Prior restraint ■ Freedom of assembly ● Peaceful assembly ● Violent demonstrations not protected ■ Freedom to petition the government ○ Second Amendment ■ Right to bear arms ○ Third Amendment ■ Forbids quartering of soldiers ■ No direct public support of armed forces ○ Fourth Amendment ■ Protects citizens’ privacy under criminal/civil procedural investigations ■ Exclusionary rule ○ Fifth Amendment ■ Right to a grand jury if a suspect is held for a capital crime ■ Prohibits double jeopardy ■ Eminent domain ● Government can seize property for public use if seizure can be “justly compensated” ■ Prohibits self-incrimination ■ Cannot deprive citizens rights without due process of law

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➢ Sixth Amendment ■ Right to a speedy public trial ■ Right to be informed of charges ■ Right to confront witnesses ■ Subpoena witnesses for defense ■ Right to a lawyer for defense ■ Habeas corpus ■ 5th+6th=Miranda Rights ○ Seventh Amendment ■ Trial by jury in all common-law cases ○ Eighth Amendment ■ Prohibits Excessive bail in federal cases ○ Ninth Amendment ■ Limited federal government ■ Rights to expressed by Constitution still protected ○ Tenth Amendment ■ Federalism ■ Defines reserved power as long as states to not infringe of rules of Constitution/federal government ➢ Early AMendments (1795-1804) ○ Eleventh Amendment (1795) ■ States may not be sued in federal court by citizens of another state/country without the consent of the states being sued ○ Twelfth Amendment (1804) ■ Electors would now have to cast separate votes for the president and the vice president ➢ Civil War/Civil Rights Amendments (1865-1870) ○ Thirteenth Amendment (1865) ■ Prohibited the institution of slavery except as a criminal punishment ○ Fourteenth Amendment (1868) ■ Expanded the right to due process to all Americans ○ Fifteenth Amendment (1870) ■ Granted voting rights to males of all races ● Later narrowed/eliminated voting rights ➢ Progressive Era Amendments (1913-1920) ○ Sixteenth Amendment (1913) ■ Progressive income tax ○ Seventeenth Amendment (1913) ■ Direct election of US senators ○ Eighteenth Amendment (1920) ■ Prohibition of alcohol manufacture/sale/transportation in or out of US ○ Nineteenth Amendment (1920) ■ Voting rights to all American women

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➢ Later Amendments (1933-1992) ○ Twentieth Amendment (1933) ■ Shortened amount of time between presidential election and inauguration ○ Twenty-first Amendment (1933) ■ Repealed Prohibition ○ Twenty-Second Amendment (1951) ■ Limited the president to two terms ○ Twenty-third Amendment (1961) ■ Allowed resident of Washington DC to vote in presidential elections ● Electoral vote count now 538 ○ Twenty-fourth Amendment (1964) ■ No poll taxes ● Blacks can vote YEET ○ Twenty-fifth Amendment (1967) ■ Clarifies line of succession for Vice President ■ VP can temporarily be President in even of presidential disability ○ Twenty-sixth Amendment (1971) ■ Lowered voting age from 21 to 18 ○ Twenty-seventh Amendment (1992) ■ If Congress votes itself a pay increase, it cannot take effect until after the next election F. State and Local Governments ➢ States can form whatever form of government they like ○ Must be defined by a state constitution ■ Approved by Congress ➢ All states have executive branch led by a governor ○ Governor powers ■ Command state National Guard ■ Can grant pardons and reprieves ■ Appoint state judges (mostly) ● With “advice and consent” of state legislature ■ Veto power over state legislature ➢ Most have bicameral legislatures ○ Can override the gubernatorial veto ■ Governors can use line-item veto ○ All have state judiciaries to interpret state law ■ Hear criminal and civil cases

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UNIT II: PUBLIC OPINION AND THE MEDIA A. Characteristics of Public Opinion ➢ Characteristics of public opinion ○ Saliency ■ Degree to which it is important to an individual/group ○ Intensity ■ How strongly do people feel about a particular issue ○ Stability ➢ Public opinion measured regularly ○ Public opinion polls ○ Elections ○ Referenda ■ Measure public opinion on specific issue B. Polls Measure Public Opinion ➢ Determine public opinion by asking questions of a much smaller group ○ Random sampling ○ Exit polls ○ Carefully worded questions ■ Multiple choice ■ Closed-ended questions ● Easily quantifiable ● Provide accuracy ○ Sampling error ■ Tells how far off poll results may be ■ More respondent, more accuracy C. Where does Public Opinion Come from? ➢ Political socialization ○ Process by which political attitudes are developed ○ Influences: ■ Family ■ Location ■ School ■ Religious institutions ■ Mass media ■ Higher education ■ Real-life experiences ■ Conservative influences ● Family responsibilities ● Property ownership ■ Liberal influence ● Discrimination

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D. Political Ideologies ➢ 3 US ideologies ○ Conservative ■ Individuals responsible for their own well-being ■ No reliance on government assistance ■ Oppose gov. interference in the private sector ■ Oppose most federal regulations ■ laissez -faire ■ 37% of Americans ○ Liberal ■ Government should be used in a limited way to remedy injustices ■ Support government regulation of the economy ■ Pro-affirmative action ■ Gov. enforced separation of church and state ■ Pro-choice ■ 24% of Americans ○ Moderate/Independent ■ Common sense>philosophical principles ■ Decline after Recession ■ 35% of Americans ➢ US politics ○ Fewer main ideological groups ○ Readily vote outside of main party ○ Those who are more ideological tend to be more politically active ➢ Factors of Political behavior ○ Race/ethnicity ■ Lower income=more liberal ■ Black/Hispanic support of liberal social programs ■ Exception:Cuban Americans tend to be conservative ○ Religion ■ More liberal ● Jews ● African-American Protestants ■ Catholics ● Politically liberal ● Socially conservative ○ Gender ■ women=more liberal

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Income level ■ Higher income ● Supportive of liberal goals ○ Racial equality ○ Sexual equality ○ International cooperation ● Fiscally conservative ○ Region ■ East Coast ● ethnic/racial mix ● Liberal ■ South ● Religious ● Conservative ■ West Coast ● Polarized ■ Cities ● Liberal congregation ■ Rural areas ● Conservative congregation E. Public Opinion and the Mass Media ➢ Media ○ Intermediary between people and government ○ Questions government motives/actions ○ Public exposure to media increased over time ■ Higher literacy rates ■ Expansion of news sources ○ Public agenda ■ Decide which stories to cover/ignore ● Decide importance of certain issues ○

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UNIT III: LINKAGE INSTITUTIONS A. Political Parties ➢ Bipartisan system ○ Democrat v. Republican ○ Reinforced by electoral system ➢ Party characteristics ○ Serve as intermediaries between the people and the government ○ Parties are made up of grassroots members, activist members, and leadership ○ Parties are organized to raise money, present positions on policy, and get their candidates elected into office ○ Created outside of constitution ○ In the past, candidates chosen by party hierarchy; no public input ■ Now, primary elections are used ● Candidates must raise own money ● Campaigning for party nomination without support from party ➢ Functions of Modern Political Parties ○ 3 major subdivisions ■ Party among the electorate ● Voters ■ Party in government ● Government officials ■ Party organization ● Neither elected officials or average voters ● Recruit candidates/voters ● Organize campaign events ● Raise money to promote party ○ Functions ■ recruit/nominate candidates ■ educate/mobilize voters ● Propaganda campaigns ● Send mailings ● Hold rallies ● Run ads ● Target regions with strong support ■ Provide campaign funds/support ● funds for House/Senate campaigns ● state/national office funds by state parties ● Most candidates fund themselves, but party funds still important

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Organize government activity ● Ex. ○ House ○ Senate ○ State legislatures ■ Provide balance ● Each party as check on the other ○ minority party=loyal opposition ■ Reduce conflict/tension in society ● Promote compromise/negotiation ○ Encourage parties to accommodate voters ○ Encourage voters to compromise on policy ○ Not hierarchical ○ Party committees organized by geographic subdivisions ■ Local ● Get-out-the-vote drives ● Canvassing ● Leaflet distribution ● Volunteer based ● Work concentrated in election time ■ County ● Coordinate efforts in local elections ● Organize precinct committees ● Send reps to polling places to monitor voting procedures ■ State ● Raise money ● Provide volunteers ● Staff campaign events ● Support on state/national level ■ NAtional ● Plans nationa...