Approaches - A-Level Psychology notes PDF

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Approaches Origins of psychology Empiricism The belief that all knowledge is derived from sensory experience, characterised by the use of experimental method Introspection The process by which a person gains knowledge about their own mental Scientific method The use of investigative methods that are objective, systematic and replicable and the formulation, testing and modification of hypotheses based on these methods. Key study: Wilhem Wundt  introspection He believed that the human mind was constructed of basic elements of sensation and perception (structuralism approach) and could be studied scientifically. He used introspection to access mental processes. This approach was based on empiricism. Evaluation: + It’s less biased, self-correcting, based on determinism + Introspection is useful in psychology  a study was done where introspection was used to measure ‘happiness’. Teenagers were given beepers and whenever it would beep throughout the day they had to write their thoughts; teens were generally more unhappy than happy. - Method is unreliable  can’t be easily reproducible - High levels of objectivity and control will tell us little about how people act in their natural environments - Introspection isn’t particularly accurate  we may not even be consciously aware of it

Approaches The behaviourist approach Theory: Much behaviour results from associations with the environment and neutral stimuli Key study: classical conditioning – Pavlov’s research A neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus which leads to a unconditioned response. The neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned response. Evaluation: + Laboratory experiments  controlled  reliable + Classical conditioning has been used in developing treatments for mental illnesses (ex. systematic desensitization) - Classical conditioning ignores the role of biology in behavior; it suggest everything comes from stimulus-response learning - Classical conditioning doesn’t account role of cognition/thought in behavior  because it’s not observable. Key study: Skinner’s research - operant conditioning He conducted a research with rats, where he placed them in a cage where a lever specifically designed to deliver food when the lever was pressed. Skinner conducted several variations where whenever the lever was pressed the rats would get electrocuted and after a while the rats learned that they shouldn’t touch the lever as it leads to negative reinforcements. Types of punishments: Positive  where an unpleasant action is added as a consequence of behaviour. Negative  where something pleasant is removed as a consequence of behaviour. Evaluation: + Cause and effect can be established + Effective for both animals and humans to learn + Token system: a form of therapy based on operant conditioning, have been shown to be effective in treating many different problematic behaviors - Skinner used animals and some argue that these results can’t be generalized to humans - Exposed the animals to unpleasant stimuli, therefore unethical

Approaches Social learning theory Identification The extent to which an individual relates to a model or a group of people and feels that they are similar to them. The term means that the individual is more likely to imitate the model’s or the group’s behaviour Vicarious Learning that is not a result of direct reinforcement of behaviour, but through someone else reinforcement being reinforced for that behaviour; Bandura and Walters 1963 showed that children who observed a model for aggressive behaviour were more likely to imitate it Imitation The action of using someone or something as a model and copying their behaviour; modelled behaviour can then be imitated Modelling A form of learning when one learns a particular behaviour by observing another individual performing that behaviour Social learning theory: Learning through observing others and through imitating behaviours that are rewarded o learning takes place in a social context o learning occurs via observation of the behaviour of others and the rewards or punishments received for the behaviour – vicarious reinforcement o other people act as models o learning and performance are not the same activity o mediational processes, eg attention, retention, motivation, reproduction o concept of identification. Key study: Bandura 1986 - social learning theory Aim: to see if children would learn and imitate aggression from watching adult role models Procedure: Children observed an adult being aggressive OR an adult being non-aggressive with the Boba doll. Result: many of the children who saw the adult being aggressive went on to imitate the aggression on the doll, same goes for the non-aggressive group. Conclusion: children exposed to aggressive role models are likely to imitate their behavior and become aggressive Role of mediational processes: Bandura emphasized internal mediational processes that take place between a stimulus and response. For social learning to take place, the observer must form mental representations of the modelled behaviour and its probable consequences. Evaluation: + SLT accepts that cognitive processes are involved in learning + Research evidence – Bandura’s Bobo dolls + SLT can have useful applications – ex. model positive behaviour to reduce criminal behaviour + Focus on human traits of consciousness and rationality which cannot be demonstrated with animal research addresses the influence of mediational processes on learning + Provides explanations that relate to behaviors such as aggression and intellectual + Does not pay much attention to the impact of biological factors on behavior - Lots of evidence for SLT comes from lab studies – in a controlled setting - Difficulty demonstrating cause and effect - Some people argue that aggressive people are drawn to violent media as an outlet for their impulses - SLT is over-emphasized as we’re exposed to many different influences, making it difficult to show that one particular things is the main causal influence. - SLT does not explain cognitive processes, leaving this to cognitive psychologists Difficulty demonstrating cause and effect

Approaches Cognitive approach - Cognition and biological processes can be integrated leading to cognitive neuroscience as a way forward to understanding human behaviour. Cognitive Relating to mental processes such as perception, memory and reasoning Computer model Refers to the process of using computer analogies as a representation of human cognition Schema A mental representation of experience and knowledge and understanding. Internal mental Behaviour is influenced by thoughts that can be both conscious and non-conscious processes Aim of cognitive To relate mental process to brain structures neuroscience Interference: make assumptions about mental processes that cannot be directly cognitive observed/going beyond the immediate research evidence. psychologists use the results of experiments to make inferences about behaviour Theoretical models  ex. working model memory – are simplified diagrams of a cognitive process. Computer models  ex. information stored on the hard drive is like LTM and RAM corresponds to the working model memory. This model can be used to test cognitive processes.

Emergence of neuroscience: Inventions of non-invasive neuroimaging techniques (PET and fMRI) have developed our understanding of the brain and its activity during cognition. Evaluation: + Highly scientific – done in laboratories + Many applications – treatments for depression; development of artificial intelligence - Simplifies human behaviour ignoring human emotions and motivations - Computers don’t make mistakes, ignore available information or forget anything that has been stored. Humans do all these things, making direct comparisons difficult. - Lack ecological validity because most experiments are done in labs - Use of self-report as a method of data collection and the subsequent issues of reliability. - Research findings indicate factors other than internal mental events as cause of behaviour

Approaches Biological approach Biological approach Views humans as biological organisms Evolution Refers to the changeover successive generations of the genetic make-up of a particular population. The central proposition of an evolutionary perspective is that the genotype of a population is changeable rather than fixed, and that this change is likely to be caused by the process of natural selection. Gene A part of the chromosome of an organism that carries information in DNA Genotype The genetic make-up of an individual Phenotype The observable characteristics of an individual. This is a consequence of the interaction of the genotype with the environment Neurochemistry The study of chemical and neural processes associated with the nervous system Heritability Amount of variability in a trait in a population that can be attributed to individual genotypic differences. Studies of identical twins suggest that 60-80% of the variability in intelligence could be genetic. Neurons and the nervous system: 1. Central Nervous System – brain and spinal cord 2. Peripheral Nervous System – the somatic and autonomic nervous systems Brain: The cerebellum makes up about 85% of the brain and is divided into 2 hemispheres each with 4 lobes. The cerebral cortex on the outer surface is responsible for ‘higher order’ functions such as thought and language. Neurochemistry: nerve impulses travel between neurons via synapses by means of neurotransmitters. Some are excitatory (ex. dopamine) and others inhibitory (ex. serotonin). Hormones are chemicals produced by glands comprising the endocrine system. The brain signals glands to release hormone directly into the bloodstream and stimulate receptors on ‘target cells’ to alter their activity. Darwin argued those who have physical and behavioural characteristics that allows them to survive and reproduce and pass these traits onto next generations. This is evolution by natural selection. Role of mediational processes: Bandura emphasized internal mediational processes that take place between a stimulus and response. For social learning to take place, the observer must form mental representations of the modelled behaviour and its probable consequences. Evaluation: + It has been tested using scientific methods + Many practical applications – treat mental illness - Doesn’t take into account the influence of the environment on behaviour only looks at nature and ignores nurture - It assumes that’s certain biological factors determine particular behaviors and they can’t be changed.

Approaches Psychodynamic approach Sigmund Freud - Born in Austria, 1856 - All his case studies came from his own patients, which is a problem because he only used individuals hence unable to generalize the results - First one to deal with mental health - Freud is associated with sex; he saw it as one of our innate desires as we need to reproduce Free association Slip of the tongue Dream analysis Symbol analysis

psychologist offers words and patient replies without. Words chosen show connections when the patient says one thing but means another listening to dream content and applying psychodynamic ideas to content used to uncover the unconscious, as actual content is symbolic of the unconscious content. Not just used with dreams, but also writing

Different parts of the personality: 1. ID – instincts and desires (sex) 2. Ego – keeps the desires realistic and under control 3. Super-ego – uses idea about morality Psychosexual stages of development: 1. Oral stage (the mouth, sucking, swallowing) 2. Anal stage (the anus – withholding or expelling faeces) 3. Phallic stage (the penis or clitoris – masturbation) 4. Latent stage (little or no sexual motivation present) 5. Genital stage (the penis or vagina – sexual intercourse) If you don’t move on from one stage to the other you become fixated which could lead to mental health problems. Ex. super tidy/messy. You could have too much or too little fixation. Oedipus and Electra complex: Oedipus was raised by foster parents, killed his father during battle, married his mother. Boys develop unconscious sexual feelings for their mother and aggression towards their father. Boys get jealous that the father has the mother however they then fear that the father will see the boy as a threat and castrate him. Girls experience penis envy (not as strong as castration anxiety) – with the father being the object and the mother seen as the threat Levels of consciousness Conscious (ego) Preconscious (ego) Unconscious (ID and superego)

The part of the mind we’re aware of (everyday thoughts/feelings) Thoughts and memories not accessible at all times, but easily recalled The deep dark shameful part (repressed thoughts, memories, feelings)

Defense mechanisms: - Keep peace between the 3 parts of out personalities They help to protect the ego when the ID and the superego clash - Will push the desire out of our conscious thoughts or change it into something safer - If a person overuses defense mechanisms they may lose touch with reality Evaluation: - Most of the patients were women - Working with individual patients

Approaches Humanistic approach - A challenge to the behaviorist and psychodynamic approach - We should have control and consciously decide what you’re doing - Looks at healthy growth – psychodynamic looks at the unhealthy side Free will Self-actualization Self Congruence Conditioned of worth

Humans make choices and not determined by biology or external forces. The model suggests we have a subjective feeling of choice. desire to grow psychologically and fulfil one’s potential – being the best you can be the idea of “I” and “me” includes ‘what can I do?’ and ‘what am I?” when the concept of self and the ideal self are seen as broadly matched when people place conditions on their love ‘I will only love you if…’

Maslow was interested in what motivates people and our ultimate goal is to reach self-actualization and to do this we must resolve some deficiencies along the way

Approaches Humanistic therapy Condition Personal growth is hampered by experiencing conditional positive regard where, to get the s of worth positive regard, the person has to meet certain requirements. This limits the chances of achieving self-actualization as the person is unlikely to achieve congruence because they feel their ideal self and their self-concept are different. ClientThe client-therapist relationship is of central importance to this therapy. Therapist provides centered the conditions in where personal growth is possible, and the development depends on the therapy client and their understanding of issues of their life. The therapist non-directive and seeks to reflect back to the client whatever they disclose in a trustful manner. Rogers 1951 – Therapy focuses on the self and its aim is to explore issues that affect the balance between the selves. The three selves must be congruent. The therapist reestablishes a balance between them by giving unconditional positive regard to the client to increase their self-esteem and adjust their ideal self closer to the real self. The three selves: 1. The self-concept: the self you think you are (self-esteem) 2. The real self: who you really are 3. The ideal self: the self you aspire to being Evaluation: + The theory allows for personal growth and the idea of free will + Therapy is proven to be effective and is a good alternative to psychoanalysis and medication - Ideas have been criticized for being culturally biased towards individualistic cultures, and have limited usefulness in collectivist cultures. - Approach acknowledges the subjectivity of experience, but its claims are hard to test scientifically.

+ comparison of approaches sheet in the binder...