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Approaches – Paper 2 Origins of Psychology DESCARTES AND DUALISM – Descartes suggested mind and body represented a dualism, and the two interact in different ways to produce behaviours and thoughts; basis for nature v nurture. Psychology = “The scientific study of behaviour and mental processes and how these are affected by internal and external factors” (IB definition). Science = “The pursuit and application of knowledge and understanding of the natural and social world, following a systematic methodology based on evidence”. Therefore, the features of science are as follows: A universal paradigm, theory construction, hypothesis testing, deduction, falsification, replicability, objectivity, and the empirical method. WUNDT AND INTROSPECTION – believed human mind could be studied scientifically using introspection Introspection: process by which a person gains knowledge about their mental and emotional states. It features 3 conditions: The mentality condition (aims to generate beliefs about mental states and events), the first-person condition (aims to generate beliefs about the individual’s own mind) and the temporal proximity condition (generates beliefs and describes the individual’s current mental life). With appropriate training, mental processes such as memory and perception could be observed systematically. Wundt isolated conscious thoughts into basic structures of thoughts, processes and images, in a process called structuralism. The method of data recording was highly scientific e.g. the same stimulus was used each time, allowing for replication under standardised conditions, hence producing reliable data. EMERGENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE – Empiricism: belief that knowledge comes from observation and experience. Wundt applied empirical methods to the study of human beings, and psychology began to emerge as a science. Psychology based on 2 major assumptions – all behaviour is caused, and it is possible to predict behaviour in different conditions Process used to explore assumptions became known as scientific method, which uses investigative methods that are objective, systematic and replicable

Evaluation Wundt’s methods unreliable as participants could only report conscious experiences, which behaviourists considered processes such as memory and perception were unobservable. Wundt’s approach failed because of the poor reliability of his methods and introspective ‘experimental’ results were not reliably reproducible by researchers in other laboratories. On the other hand, Pavlov and Thorndike, for example, were achieving reliable and replicable results, which highlights the unreliability of Wundt’s methods.

Secondly, because of the scientific method’s reliance on empirical observations, psychological theories can be refined or abandoned in response to new evidence. However, much human behaviour is unobservable, and cannot be directly measured. In addition, human behaviour may not follow universal laws, so generalisation may be inappropriate sometimes. As a result of this, much psychological knowledge is inferential, and there is a gap between the data obtained in research and the theories presented to explain this data. Moreover, Csikzentmihalyi and Hunter used bleepers in their research to prompt teenagers to write down their thoughts and feelings at random points during the day. They found the teens were more often unhappy than happy, but when their energies were focused on a challenging task, they were happier. Introspection, therefore, offers researchers a means of measuring participants’ conscious thoughts and feelings. Finally, Nisbett and Wilson claim introspection is inaccurate as we lack knowledge of the causes and processes underlying our behaviour and attitudes. This is evident in the study of implicit attitudes – for example, unconscious racism influences how someone behaves and thinks. Because such attitudes are unconscious, self-reports through introspection wouldn’t reveal them. Therefore, this challenges the value of introspection in exploring attitudes and beliefs.

Behavioural Approach ASSUMPTIONS – all behaviour is acquired and maintained through classical and operant conditioning = only behaviour which can be objectively measured and observed is studied

Classical Conditioning EXTINCTION – when CS is presented without UCS a few times, extinction occurs and CR no longer produced SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY – if CS and UCS are paired together again, CR can be reproduced GENERALISATION – will respond to other stimuli similar to CS

Operant Conditioning Suggests that whether or not an animal repeats a particular behaviour depends on its consequences

SKINNER BOX – positive reinforcement was when rats pressed a lever and received food as a reward, and learnt to repeat. Negative was when rat learned to press the lever to avoid an electric shock.

Evaluation In an attempt to objectively and systematically collect reliable data, the behaviourist approach makes use of highly scientific research methods, particularly the laboratory experiment. Strictly-controlled conditions reduce and control for the effects of confounding and extraneous variables, increasing the reliability and internal validity of the findings (as these are more likely to be replicated when research is conducted under the same conditions). By focusing on behaviour which is observable and can be measured, the behaviourist approach increases the scientific credibility of psychology. Moreover, an increased understanding of classical and operant conditioning has led to the development of treatments and therapies for serious mental disorders. For example, token economies have been used as a way of dealing with offending behaviour: inmates who carry out socially-desirable behaviour (such as tidying their cell and avoiding conflicts) receive tokens (secondary reinforcers) which can be traded for privileges (primary reinforcers), such as extra TV-time. Therefore, behaviourist principles have had positive impacts on the lives of many. However, a limitation of the approach is that the behaviourist approach sees all behaviour as the product of past reinforcement contingencies, leaving no room for free will or conscious choices. This hard deterministic stance may be a more appropriate explanation for animal behaviour, whereas explanations of human behaviour should also account for emotions, motivations and reasoning skills (e.g. as social learning theory does). Hence, the behaviourist approach may be a limited explanation for human behaviour. Finally, Skinner’s box caused considerable physical harm to the rats, breaching the BPS ethical guideline of protection from harm. Watson and Rayner’s classical conditioning experiments on Little Albert failed to protect him from psychological harm, as well as not offering him the opportunity to withdraw. Therefore, much behaviourist research, at least by modern standards, would be viewed as unethical. However, a cost-benefit analysis may show that the benefit of increased understanding of the different types of learning (classical and operant conditioning) outweigh the ethical costs.

SLT ASSUMPTIONS – learning through observation of others and imitating behaviours that are rewarded

MODELLING – a person (model) performs a behaviour and another individual observes them MEDIATIONAL PROCESSES – enable observer to store mental representations of this behaviour and its probable circumstances IMITATION – process of copying an observed behaviour IDENTIFICATION – makes imitation more likely when the model is similar to observer VICARIOUS REINFORCEMENT – observing a model receiving rewards increases likelihood of imitating behaviour

Bandura et al (1961) PROCEDURE – children observed aggressive/non-aggressive model interacting with Bobo doll FINDINGS – children in aggressive group reproduced much of model’s behaviour, both verbal and physical Non-aggressive group showed almost no aggression Follow up – children who saw model rewarded for aggression more likely to demonstrate aggression in their own play

Evaluation A strength of SLT is that it acknowledges the role of human cognition. Human cognitive and decision-making processes may be considered as more complex than that of animals, and SLT recognises the role of mediational processes as the conscious and cognitive insight that humans have. Therefore, SLT may be a better explanation of human behaviour compared to behaviourism because of this consideration. Moreover, Fox and Bailenson used computer-generated virtual humans who looked similar/dissimilar to participants, engaging in exercise or loitering. Participants who viewed their model exercising engaged in more exercise in the 24 hours following than those who viewed their model loitering or a dissimilar model. They concluded that greater identification with a model leads to more learning because you are able to visualise yourself in place of the model, providing research support for the role of identification in SLT. However, Bandura’s study may lack internal validity, due to not entirely investigating the effect of aggressive role models because the Bobo doll is specifically designed to be hit. The study may also lack mundane realism because it may not represent or measure how children would be aggressive in day-to-day situations, perhaps towards objects or people that are not meant to be struck. Therefore, participants may have deliberately acted more aggressively towards the doll in order to please the experimenter (the ‘Please-U effect’). This reduces the generalisability of the findings. Finally, social learning theory disregards other potential influences on behaviour. For example, in explaining the development of gender role behaviour, SL theorists would emphasise the importance of gender-specific modelling. However, in real life a child is exposed to many different influences which interact in complex ways. These include genetic predispositions, conditioning,

personality factors and media portrayals. This presents a serious problem as it is very difficult to show one particular thing as the main causal influence.

Cognitive Approach ASSUMPTIONS – scientific and objective study of internal mental processes is possible Conclusions formulated through inferences based upon observable behaviours Cognitive processes include memory, attention, perception, emotion and awareness Studies mind as an information processor, with inputs, processing, storage, retrieval and outputs COMPUTER MODEL – input information via senses, working memory similar to RAM and LTM similar to information on a hard drive Cognitive psychologists often develop theoretical models i.e WMM to visually present a mental process SCHEMA – cognitive framework that helps organise and interpret information Allow us to take shortcuts when interpreting large amounts of information, but can lead to stereotypes as we make assumptions about people based on incomplete information COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE – studies living brain using brain imaging tech such as PET and fMRI, showing which parts of the brain are active during different tasks

Evaluation The cognitive approach sees humans as being able to reason and make conscious decisions within the limits of what they know or their ‘cognitive system’, and so adopts a soft deterministic approach. This is more flexible than the behaviourist hard determinism stance because it allows for humans to have some conscious insight into their behaviour: a complexity which differentiates us from animals, and so provides a better explanation for human behaviour than behaviourism. Secondly, an increased understanding of the neural processes underlying cognition have proven to be useful in many areas. For example, the design and manufacture of modern technology relies on an understanding of behavioural science and human-computer interactions. In education, cognitive neuroscientists can study a child’s performance in phonological tests to serve as a more accurate prediction of their reading ability. Therefore, the impact of cognitive neuroscience is increasingly seen in the real world. Moreover, the emergence of cognitive neuroscience has substantially increased the scientific credibility of psychology, bringing it closer to that of biology, physics etc. This is due to the emphasis on objectively collecting reliable data through direct observation of the neural processes underlying cognition, as seen in PET, CT, MRI and fMRI scans. However, cognitive psychology makes extensive use of schemas and analogies as ways of indirectly studying and inferring the cognitive basis of behaviour. However, this reliance of inference means that some ideas in cognitive psychology may seem too abstract and not have enough supporting empirical evidence of such mechanisms being observed. Therefore, this reduces

Biological Approach ASSUMPTIONS - According to the biological approach, humans are biological organisms made up of physiological processes. Therefore, all thoughts, ideas and cognitive processes must be biological in origin. This means that the mind ‘lives’ within the brain, and is not separate (as viewed by the cognitive approach). The actions of genes, hormones, neurotransmitters and neurochemical mechanisms must be understood in order to explain behaviour fully. GENES – carry instructions for particular characteristic i.e intelligence GENOTYPE – genetic code in DNA PHENOTYPE – physical appearance that results from inherited information How these characteristics develop depends on interaction between genes and environment Biological structures play important role in behaviour – NS carries messages around body in form of electrical signals in neurons NEUROTRANSMITTERS – molecules that transmit messages from one neuron to another; diffuse across synapse and bind to receptors, where they may cause excitation or inhibition of an impulse Behaviour can be influenced by hormones, chemicals produced by endocrine glands. Secreted directly into bloodstream where they travel to target cells, causing a physiological reaction DARWIN – theory of evolution describes how behaviours that make individuals more likely to survive and reproduce are passed through genes. As a result these genes and their associated behaviours become more common in future generations – the process of natural selection

Evaluation The biological approach uses EEG, PET and fMRI scans to objectively and systematically measure the biological or neural basis of behaviour. Drugs are also then developed on this basis, whilst family and adoption studies can lead to an increased understanding of the concordance rates and heritability of certain psychological characteristics. This increases the scientific credibility of Psychology, through the strict control of extraneous and confounding variables. Moreover, the biological approach has useful applications in the real world. For example, research into the role of neurochemical imbalance in depression has led to the development of effective drug treatments. This further demonstrates the value of adopting a biological approach, as treatments can be beneficial to the health and well-being of people. However, the approach is criticised for its belief that complex behaviour can be reduced into the action of genes, neurochemicals and hormones. For example, many explanations of mental disorders are reductionist as genes or neurochemical imbalances are believed to be the primary cause. As a result, we cannot fully understand a behaviour without also taking account of other factors that may influence it, including cognitive, emotional and cultural factors.

Finally, the approach suggests that all behaviour is determined by internal biological forces we have no control over. However, this has serious implications for the judicial system and economy as we are expected to take moral responsibility for our actions. As a result, such actions cannot be entirely blamed on genetic factors. This creates the danger of diminished responsibility and that genes might be used to explain criminality, despite the connection between genes and complex behaviours being far from straightforward. Therefore, such biological determinism has potentially severe consequences if applied to real life.

Psychodynamic Approach Emphasise change and development in individual, unconscious motives and desires, and importance of early childhood experiences in shaping personality FREUD’S THEORY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS – suggests unconscious mind reveals itself through ‘Freudian slips’, creativity and neurotic symptoms STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY – Id – operates on pleasure principle, constantly demands gratification and in conflict with superego Ego – mediates between id and superego through defence mechanisms, formed during first 3 years of life Super-ego – formed at end of phallic stage, consisting of conscience, internalises social rules and ego-ideal, determined by parental expectations DEFENCE MECHANISMS – prevent traumatic memories from becoming conscious and causing anxiety Repression – unconscious blocking of unacceptable thoughts and impulses Denial – refusal to accept reality Displacement – redirecting hostile feelings onto an innocent person/object PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES -

Freud adopted nomothetic approach by suggesting a series of developmental stages through which all children progress, and in the same order Each stage characterised by conflict, which must be resolved to pass onto the next stage, apart from latency Failure results in fixation at that stage, where dysfunctional behaviours associated with that stage are carried to adulthood OEDIPUS AND ELECTRA COMPLEX.- developed on basis of Little Hans study, where Freud suggested Hans’ fear of horses stemmed from a fear towards his father, due to having sexual desires for his mother Example of idiographic approach to research (use of case studies), but nomothetic application (all boys experience OC, all girls EC)

Evaluation Psychotherapy and psychoanalysis are both rooted in the psychodynamic approach and still have modern uses. For example, Kohlenberg et al (2002) found that “FECT produced a greater focus on the client-therapist relationship and is a promising approach for improving outcomes and interpersonal functioning. It also appears that a focus during sessions on clients’ problematic cognitions about the therapist adds to the efficacy”. Therefore, Freud’s psychodynamic approach has made a long-lasting contribution towards treatment of various mental disorders, such as depression. However, psychoanalysis is a cultured biased approach, as Sue and Sue argue that it has little relevance for people from non-Western cultures. They claim that many cultural groups do not value discussion and insight in the same way that Western cultures do. For example, in China, a depressed or anxious person avoids thoughts that cause distress rather than being willing to discuss them openly. This contrasts the Western belief that open discussion and insight are helpful in therapy, therefore highlighting the issue of culture bias in this approach. Another issue is that the psychodynamic approach is gender-biased. Freud seemed content to remain ignorant of female sexuality and how it could differ from that of a male. This has led to criticism over Freud’s work, particularly his views on women and their development – the Electra Complex was added to the theory later to account for the gender bias. Dismissing women in this way is problematic as Freud’s theory is still so influential today, and therefore whilst there is gender bias in the theory, the addition of the Electra Complex provides an explanation of female sexuality and behaviour. Finally, since we are unaware of the unconscious, then it is not possible to objectively and systematically measure it. Therefore, this means that, according to Karl Popper, that the psychodynamic approach does not meet the scientific criterion of falsification, leaving it unfalsifiable and a pseudoscience. This does little to improve the scientific credibility of psychology, and indeed has left many with an inaccurate view of psychology as a scientific discipline.

Humanistic Approach ASSUMPTIONS – we have free will: ...