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For the exclusive use of S. Shi, 2021.

The Necessary Art of Persuasion

by Jay A. Conger

Harvard Business Review Reprint 98304

This document is authorized for use only by Sylvia Shi in MGC401 Professional Communication (2021) taught by THOMAS SHAW, University of Rochester from Jul 2021 to Jan 2022.

For the exclusive use of S. Shi, 2021.

HarvardBusinessReview MAY– JUNE 1998 Reprint Number DAV I D J. COL L I S A N D CYNT H I A A . MONT GOME R Y

CREATING CORPORATE ADVANTAGE

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J AY A . CONGE R

THE NECESSARY ART OF PERSUASION

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CH R I S A R GYR I S

EMPOWERMENT: THE EMPEROR’S NEW CLOTHES

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J E FFR E Y P FE FFE R

SIX DANGEROUS MYTHS ABOUT PAY

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MA H L ON A P GA R , I V

THE ALTERNATIVE WORKPLACE: CHANGING WHERE AND HOW PEOPLE WORK

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OR I T GA DI E S H A ND J A ME S L . GI L B E R T

PROFIT POOLS: A FRESH LOOK AT STRATEGY

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OR I T GA DI E S H A ND J A ME S L . GI L B E R T

ma na ge r ’s tool k i t

CON S TA N T I N E VON H OFFMA N

H B R CA S E S T UDY

GOR DON S H AW, R OB E R T B R OWN, a n d P H I L I P B R OMI L E Y

i de a s at wor k

L A R R Y E . GR E I N E R

H B R CL A S S I C

HOW TO MAP YOUR INDUSTRY’S PROFIT POOL DOES THIS COMPANY NEED A UNION? STRATEGIC STORIES: HOW 3M IS REWRITING BUSINESS PLANNING EVOLUTION AND REVOLUTION AS ORGANIZATIONS GROW

J E FFR E Y E . GA R T E N

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B OOK S I N R E V I E W

OPENING THE DOORS FOR BUSINESS IN CHINA

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This document is authorized for use only by Sylvia Shi in MGC401 Professional Communication (2021) taught by THOMAS SHAW, University of Rochester from Jul 2021 to Jan 2022.

For the exclusive use of S. Shi, 2021. The language of leadership is misunderstood, underutilized – and more essential than ever.

T H E N E C E S S A RY A RT O F

P E R S UA S I O N BY JAY A . CON GER

This document is authorized for use only by Sylvia Shi in MGC401 Professional Communication (2021) taught by THOMAS SHAW, University of Rochester from Jul 2021 to Jan 2022.

For the exclusive use of S. Shi, 2021.

persuasion, it is now. Gone the command-and-control daysart of f of there ever was a time forare businesspeople to learn the fine

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executives managing by decree. Today businesses are run largely by

cross-functional teams of peers and populated by baby boomers and their Generation X offspring, who show little tolerance for unquestioned authority. Electronic communication and globalization have further eroded the traditional hierarchy, as ideas and people flow more freely than ever around organizations and as decisions get made closer to the markets. These fundamental changes, more than a decade in the making but now firmly part of the economic landscape, essentially come down to this: work today gets done in an environment where

This document is authorized for use only by Sylvia Shi in MGC401 Professional Communication (2021) taught by THOMAS SHAW, University of Rochester from Jul 2021 to Jan 2022.

For the exclusive use of S. Shi, 2021. t h e n e c e s s a ry a r t o f p e r s ua s i o n

T welve Y ea r s of Wat chi ng a nd L i st eni ng The ideas behind this article spring from three streams of research. For the last 12 years as both an academic and as a consultant, I have been studying 23 senior business leaders who have shown themselves to be effective change agents. Specifically, I have investigated how these individuals use language to motivate their employees, articulate vision and strategy, and mobilize their organizations to adapt to challenging business environments. Four years ago, I started a second stream of research exploring the capabilities and characteristics of successful cross-functional team leaders. The core of my database comprised interviews with and observations of 18 individuals working in a range of U.S. and Canadian companies. These were not senior leaders as in my earlier studies but low- and middle-level managers. Along with interviewing the colleagues of these people, I also compared their skills with those of other

people don’t just ask What should I do? but Why should I do it? To answer this why question effectively is to persuade. Yet many businesspeople misunderstand persuasion, and more still underutilize it. The reason? Persuasion is widely perceived as a skill reserved for selling products and closing deals. It is also commonly seen as just another form of manipulation – devious and to be avoided. Certainly, persuasion can be used in selling and deal-clinching situations, and it can be misused to manipulate people. But exercised constructively and to its full potential, persuasion supersedes sales and is quite the opposite of deception. Effective persuasion becomes a negotiating and learning process through which a persuader leads colleagues to a problem’s shared solution. Persuasion does indeed involve moving people to a position they don’t currently hold, but not by begging or cajoling. Instead, it involves careful preparation, the proper framing of arguments, the presentation of vivid supporting evidence, and the effort to find the correct emotional match with your audience. Jay A. Conger is a professor of organizational behavior at the University of Southern California’s Marshall School of Business in Los Angeles, where he directs the Leadership Institute. He is the author of Winning ’Em Over: A New Model for Managing in the Age of Persuasion (Simon & Schuster, 1998).

team leaders – in particular, with the leaders of less successful cross-functional teams engaged in similar initiatives within the same companies. Again, my focus was on language, but I also studied the influence of interpersonal skills. The similarities in the persuasion skills possessed by both the change-agent leaders and effective team leaders prompted me to explore the academic literature on persuasion and rhetoric, as well as on the art of gospel preaching. Meanwhile, to learn how most managers approach the persuasion process, I observed several dozen managers in company meetings, and I employed simulations in company executive-education programs where groups of managers had to persuade one another on hypothetical business objectives. Finally, I selected a group of 14 managers known for their outstanding abilities in constructive persuasion. For several months, I interviewed them and their colleagues and observed them in actual work situations.

Effective persuasion is a difficult and timeconsuming proposition, but it may also be more powerful than the command-and-control managerial model it succeeds. As AlliedSignal’s CEO Lawrence Bossidy said recently, “The day when you could yell and scream and beat people into good performance is over. Today you have to appeal to them by helping them see how they can get from here to there, by establishing some credibility, and by giving them some reason and help to get there. Do all those things, and they’ll knock down doors.” In essence, he is describing persuasion – now more than ever, the language of business leadership. Think for a moment of your definition of persuasion. If you are like most businesspeople I have encountered (see the insert “Twelve Years of Watching and Listening”), you see persuasion as a relatively straightforward process. First, you strongly state your position. Second, you outline the supporting arguments, followed by a highly assertive, data-based exposition. Finally, you enter the dealmaking stage and work toward a “close.” In other words, you use logic, persistence, and personal enthusiasm to get others to buy a good idea. The reality is that following this process is one surefire way to fail at persuasion. (See the insert “Four Ways Not to Persuade.”) What, then, constitutes effective persuasion? If persuasion is a learning and negotiating process, then in the most general terms it involves phases of

Copyright © 1998 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College. All rights reserved.

a r t w o r k by Dav id Jo hns o n

This document is authorized for use only by Sylvia Shi in MGC401 Professional Communication (2021) taught by THOMAS SHAW, University of Rochester from Jul 2021 to Jan 2022.

For the exclusive use of S. Shi, 2021. t h e n e c e s s a ry a r t o f p e r s ua s i o n

discovery, preparation, and dialogue. Getting ready to persuade colleagues can take weeks or months of planning as you learn about your audience and the position you intend to argue. Before they even start to talk, effective persuaders have considered their positions from every angle. What investments in time and money will my position require from others? Is my supporting evidence weak in any way? Are there alternative positions I need to examine? Dialogue happens before and during the persuasion process. Before the process begins, effective persuaders use dialogue to learn more about their audience’s opinions, concerns, and perspectives. During the process, dialogue continues to be a form of learning, but it is also the beginning of the negotiation stage. You invite people to discuss, even debate, the merits of your position, and then to offer honest feedback and suggest alternative solutions. That may sound like a slow way to achieve your goal, but effective persuasion is about testing and revising ideas in concert with your colleagues’ concerns and needs. In fact, the best persuaders not only listen to others but also incorporate their perspectives into a shared solution.

Persuasion, in other words, often involves – indeed, demands – compromise. Perhaps that is why the most effective persuaders seem to share a common trait: they are open-minded, never dogmatic. They enter the persuasion process prepared to adjust their viewpoints and incorporate others’ ideas. That approach to persuasion is, interestingly, highly persuasive in itself. When colleagues see that a persuader is eager to hear their views and willing to make changes in response to their needs and concerns, they respond very positively. They trust the persuader more and listen more attentively. They don’t fear being bowled over or manipulated. They see the persuader as flexible and are thus more willing to make sacrifices themselves. Because that is such a powerful dynamic, good persuaders often enter the persuasion process with judicious compromises already prepared.

Four Essential Steps Effective persuasion involves four distinct and essential steps. First, effective persuaders establish credibility. Second, they frame their goals in a way

F ou r Way s Not to P er sua de In my work with managers as a researcher and as a consultant, I have had the unfortunate opportunity to see executives fail miserably at persuasion. Here are the four most common mistakes people make: 1. They attempt to make their case with an up-front, hard sell. I call this the John Wayne approach. Managers strongly state their position at the outset, and then through a process of persistence, logic, and exuberance, they try to push the idea to a close. In reality, setting out a strong position at the start of a persuasion effort gives potential opponents something to grab onto – and fight against. It’s far better to present your position with the finesse and reserve of a lion tamer, who engages his “partner” by showing him the legs of a chair. In other words, effective persuaders don’t begin the process by giving their colleagues a clear target in which to set their jaws. 2. They resist compromise. Too many managers see compromise as surrender, but it is essential to constructive persuasion. Before people buy into a proposal, they want to see that the persuader is flexible enough to respond to their concerns. Compromises can often lead to better, more sustainable shared solutions. By not compromising, ineffective persuaders unconsciously send the message that they think persuasion is a one-way street. But persuasion is a process of

give-and-take. Kathleen Reardon, a professor of organizational behavior at the University of Southern California, points out that a persuader rarely changes another person’s behavior or viewpoint without altering his or her own in the process. To persuade meaningfully, we must not only listen to others but also incorporate their perspectives into our own. 3. They think the secret of persuasion lies in presenting great arguments. In persuading people to change their minds, great arguments matter. No doubt about it. But arguments, per se, are only one part of the equation. Other factors matter just as much, such as the persuader’s credibility and his or her ability to create a proper, mutually beneficial frame for a position, connect on the right emotional level with an audience, and communicate through vivid language that makes arguments come alive. 4. They assume persuasion is a one-shot effort. Persuasion is a process, not an event. Rarely, if ever, is it possible to arrive at a shared solution on the first try. More often than not, persuasion involves listening to people, testing a position, developing a new position that reflects input from the group, more testing, incorporating compromises, and then trying again. If this sounds like a slow and difficult process, that’s because it is. But the results are worth the effort.

87 harvard business review May–June 1998 This document is authorized for use only by Sylvia Shi in MGC401 Professional Communication (2021) taught by THOMAS SHAW, University of Rochester from Jul 2021 to Jan 2022.

For the exclusive use of S. Shi, 2021. t h e n e c e s s a ry a r t o f p e r s ua s i o n

that identifies common ground with those they intend to persuade. Third, they reinforce their positions using vivid language and compelling evidence. And fourth, they connect emotionally with their audience. As one of the most effective executives in our research commented, “The most valuable lesson I’ve learned about persuasion over the years is that there’s just as much strategy in how you present your position as in the position itself. In fact, I’d say the strategy of presentation is the more critical.” Establish credibility. The first hurdle persuaders must overcome is their own credibility. A persuader can’t advocate a new or contrarian position without having people wonder, Can we trust this individual’s perspectives and opinions? Such a reaction is understandable. After all, allowing oneself to be persuaded is risky, because any new initiative demands a commitment of time and resources. Yet even though persuaders must have high credibility, our research strongly suggests that most managers overestimate their own credibility – considerably. In the workplace, credibility grows out of two sources: expertise and relationships. People are considered to have high levels of expertise if they have a history of sound judgment or have proven themselves knowledgeable and well informed about their proposals. For example, in proposing a new product idea, an effective persuader would need to be perceived as possessing a thorough understanding of the product – its specifications, target markets, customers, and competing products. A history of prior successes would further strengthen the per-

time – that they can be trusted to listen and to work in the best interests of others. They have also consistently shown strong emotional character and integrity; that is, they are not known for mood extremes or inconsistent performance. Indeed, people who are known to be honest, steady, and reliable have an edge when going into any persuasion situation. Because their relationships are robust, they are more apt to be given the benefit of the doubt. One effective persuader in our research was considered by colleagues to be remarkably trustworthy and fair; many people confided in her. In addition, she generously shared credit for good ideas and provided staff with exposure to the company’s senior executives. This woman had built strong relationships, which meant her staff and peers were always willing to consider seriously what she proposed. If expertise and relationships determine credibility, it is crucial that you undertake an honest assessment of where you stand on both criteria before beginning to persuade. To do so, first step back and ask yourself the following questions related to expertise: How will others perceive my knowledge about the strategy, product, or change I am proposing? Do I have a track record in this area that others know about and respect? Then, to assess the strength of your relationship credibility, ask yourself, Do those I am hoping to persuade see me as helpful, trustworthy, and supportive? Will they see me as someone in sync with them – emotionally, intellectually, and politically – on issues like this one? Finally, it is important to note that it is not enough to get your own read on these matters. You must also test your answers with colleagues you trust to give you a reality check. Only then will you have a complete picture of your credibility. In most cases, that exercise helps people discover that they have some measure of weakness, either on the expertise or on the relationship side of credibility. The challenge then becomes to fill in such gaps. In general, if your area of weakness is on the expertise side, you have several options: First, you can learn more about the complexities of your position through either formal or informal education and through conversations with knowledgeable individuals. You might also get more relevant experience on the job by asking, for instance, to be assigned to a team that would increase your insight into particular markets or products. Another alternative is to hire someone to bolster your expertise – for example, an industry consultant or a recognized outside expert, such as a profes-

Research strongly suggests that most managers are in the habit of overestimating their own credibility –often considerably. suader’s perceived expertise. One extremely successful executive in our research had a track record of 14 years of devising highly effective advertising campaigns. Not surprisingly, he had an easy time winning colleagues over to his position. Another manager had a track record of seven successful new-product launches in a period of five years. He, too, had an advantage when it came to persuading his colleagues to support his next new idea. On the relationship side, people with high credibility have demonstrated – again, usually over

88 harvard business review May–June 1998 This document is authorized for use only by Sylvia Shi in MGC401 Professional Communication (2021) taught by THOMAS SHAW, University of Rochester from Jul 2021 to Jan 2022.

For the exclusive use of S. Shi, 2021. t h e n e c e s s a ry a r t o f p e r s ua s i o n

sor. Either one may have the knowledge and experience required to support your position effectively. Similarly, you may tap experts within your organization to advocate your position. Their credibility becomes a substitute for your own. You can also utilize other outside sources of information to support your position, such as respected business or trade periodicals, books, independently produced reports, and lectures by experts. In our research, one executive from the clothing industry successfully persuaded his company to reposition an entire product line to a more youthful market after bolstering his credibility with articles by a noted demographer in two highly regarded journals and with two independent market-research studies. Finally, you may launch pilot projects to demonstrate on a small scale your expertise and the value of your ideas. As for filling in the relationship gap: Y...