ATI TEAS Anatomy & Physiology PDF

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ATI TEAS ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY STUDY GUIDE CELLS & BASIC STRUCTURE ● Prokaryotes ○ single-celled (bacteria or archaea) with flagella (for movement) ○ Replicate through binary fission → split apart and make 2 exact copies of same cell ○ DNA is contained in single circular chromosome ● Eukaryotes ○ Plants, animals, fungi, bacteria ○ Reproduce through mitosis or meiosis ○ DNA is contained in multiple linear chromosomes ● All cells have cell membrane, cytoplasm, and DNA ● Plant cells contain all same organelles but contain cell walls with chloroplast ○ Organelles that aid in photosynthesis ORGANELLES OF A CELL Organelle

Function

Cell membrane

● Controls movement of solutes in and out of the cell (proteins, enzymes, chemicals) ● Selectively permeable ● Made of double layer of phospholipids (hydrophilic phosphate head, hydrophobic fatty acid tail)

Nucleus

● contains DNA ● Codes for protein (transcription → process of making mRNA from gene) ● DNA replication and RNA transcription occur

Nucleolus

● Where most RNA and ribosomes are made

Mitochondria

● “Powerhouse of cell” ● Produce ATP via aerobic respiration ● Has a double membrane, small circular genome, and own ribosomes

Endoplasmic Reticulum

● where proteins are built and stored ● Smooth ER = no ribosomes

● Rough ER = ribosomes attached Golgi Apparatus Lysosomes

Secretory Vesicles

Ribosomes

● Sort, pack, and secrete proteins from ER ● Contains enzymes that break cell structures ● Recycle old cell parts ● Transport and deliver molecules in and out of cell via cell membrane ● ● Produce proteins as specified from DNA

Cilia/Flagella

● Cilia - Microscopic hair-like projections on some eukaryotic cells that aid in movement ● Flagella - whip-like tail used for movement; only on sperm cell in humans

Chromosomes

● Complex thread-like arrangements composed of DNA ● Found in cell nucleus ● Humans have 23 pairs (46 total)

Chromatin

● Cluster of genetic material made of DNA and proteins ● Forms chromosomes during cell division

Centrosome

● Organize microtubules of cell ● Centriole - substructure; assembles mitotic spindle in cell division

TRANSPORT MECHANISMS ● Passive Mechanisms ○ Does not require energy ○ From a high to low concentration 1) Simple Diffusion a) Relies on concentration gradient to scatter molecules until equilibrium 2) Facilitated Diffusion a) Uses carrier proteins to transport molecules across cell membrane 3) Osmosis

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a) Diffusion of H2O across selectively permeable membrane b) Water moves from area of low solute concentration to high solute concentration c) Isotonic - equal distribution of H2O d) Hypertonic - H2O moves out of the cell → cell shrinks e) Hypotonic - H2O moves into cell → cell swells Filtration a) Forcing molecules through membrane to separate solids from H2O Active Mechanisms ○ Requires ATP ○ From area of low to high concentration Active Transport a) Requires carrier protein Exocytosis a) Moving molecules into cell Endocytosis a) Moving molecules out of cell i) Pinocytosis - cell drinking; taking in droplets of H2O ii) Phagocytosis - cell eating; taking in solids iii) Receptor-mediated endocytosis - cell membrane splits off to form internal vesicle → response to molecules activating receptors on surface

CELL REPRODUCTION ● Mitosis ○ Multiplication of cells via sexual reproduction ○ Cells produce exact copy of themselves ○ Results in two identical daughter cells ● Meiosis ○ Cellular reproduction via sexual reproduction ○ Each daughter cell contains half of DNA of original cell CELL CYCLE (MITOSIS) 1) Interphase a) Cells conducting metabolic functions and replicating DNA b) Cell growth period 2) Prophase (step 1) a) Nuclear membrane dissolves → doubled chromosomes float freely b) Spindle fibers gather around centrosomes → produce spindle apparatus (separates floating DNA into separate poles) 3) Metaphase (step 2) a) Sees spindle apparatus

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b) Pulled in by centrosomes c) Pushes DNA to opposite ends of cell Anaphase (step 3) a) Spindle fibers retract b) Chromosomes pull apart Telophase (step 4) a) Spindle fibers dissolve and nuclear membranes form around new chromosome pairing Cytokinesis a) Daughter cells are divided by cell membrane I-PMAT (interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase)

MEIOSIS CYCLE ● Cells undergo PMAT twice → called meiosis I and meiosis II ● ● PMAT I → similar to mitosis ● New pairings (tetrads) migrate → cytokinesis creates two diploid cells (46 chromosomes) ● Diploid cells begin meiosis II ● PMAT II similar to PMAT I ○ Results in four haploid cells (gametes) STEM CELLS ● State of cells prior to differentiation ● Have the potential to self-renew or become differentiated CELL DIFFERENTIATION ● Process that determines the cell type for each cell ○ Cells become specialized ● Controlled by genes of each cell ● Following directions of genes → cell builds certain proteins and pieces to set it apart TYPES OF TISSUES IN THE BODY ● Epithelial ○ Cells are joined tightly together → exists in sheets ○ Does not have own blood supply, dependent on diffusion from nearby capillaries for food and H2O ○ Provides coverage (skin) and produces secretions ● Connective ○ Dense, loose tissue

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○ Protects and binds body parts ○ Bone tissue, cartilage, tendons, ligaments, adipose (fat), blood, and lymph ○ Blood ■ Type of connective tissue ■ Transports O2 to cells, removes waste, carries hormones, defends body against disease Cartilage ○ Cushions and provides structural support for the body ○ Fibrous Bone ○ Hard tissue that supports and protects soft tissues and organs ○ Marrow produces RBC Muscle ○ Helps support and move the body ○ 3 types - smooth, cardiac, skeletal Nervous ○ Located in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves ○ Send signals to muscles and glands → triggers response

ORGANS ● Organ ○ Structure composed of multiple tissue types working together to perform a specific function ● 11 major systems ORGAN SYSTEMS Organ System

Components

Function

Nose, throat, lungs

● Take in O2 and release CO2

Digestive

Mouth, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, colon, rectum, gallbladder

● Digest foods for nutrient absorption

Immune

Spleen, bone marrow, lymph nodes

● Protect body from foreign pathogens

Hypothalamus, pituitary gland, adrenal glands, thyroid gland, ovaries, pancreas

● Produce/secrete hormones to control bodily processes

Kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra

● Filter blood and waste via urine

Testes, penis, ovaries, uterus, vagina

● Produce gametes

Respiratory

Endocrine

Urinary Reproductive

● Facilitate fertilization Muscular

muscle

● Enable movement of body

Nervous

Brain, spinal cord, nerves

● Receive and process stimuli ● Transmit information ● Control bodily functions

Skeletal

Bones

● Protect internal organs ● Create blood cells ● Framework for muscles

Cardiovascular

Heart, blood vessels

● Move blood throughout body

Integumentary

Skin, hair, nails, exocrine glands

● Maintain homeostasis ● Protection against pathogens

ANATOMICAL PLANES ● Coronal ○ Runs vertically ○ Separates from front to back ● Sagittal ○ Runs vertically ○ Separates left and right halves ● Transverse ○ Runs horizontally ○ Separates top and bottom ANATOMICAL DIRECTIONAL TERMINOLOGY ● Superior ○ above/closer to head ● Cephalic/Cephalad ○ Towards the head ● Inferior ○ below/closer to feet ● Posterior ○ Structures behind ○ Caudad - tail/posterior ● Anterior ○ Structures in front ● Medial ○ Nearer to midline of body

● Lateral ○ Structures further away from midline, at sides ● Proximal ○ Structures closer to the center of the body ● Distal ○ Structures farther away from center INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM ● Skin, hair, nails, and glands ● Skin = first layer of defense against pathogens; made of epithelial membrane ● Maintains homeostasis ● Synthesis biochemicals (vitamin D - calcium absorption; produced by skin if exposed to sunlight) TWO MAIN LAYERS OF SKIN (Chipotle Loves Grand Steak Burritos) ● Epidermis ○ Outer layer made of stratified squamous epithelium ○ Multilayered ■ Stratum corneum - outermost layer (non-living) ■ Stratum lucidum - found in thick areas (palms and soles) ■ Stratum granulosum - may be missing where epidermis is thin ■ Stratum spinosum *(written note - inner) ■ Stratum basale - develops new cells constantly pushed to surface *(written note - inner) ● Melanocytes → produce melanin → pigment that provide skin color ● Dermis ○ Inner layer ○ Subcutaneous dermis (hypodermis) - embedded below dermis and contains layer of fat and blood vessels ■ Binds skin to underlying organs ○ Basement membrane - nonliving layer; anchors dermis to epidermis and separates layers ACCESSORY ORGANS ● Hair follicles ○ Tube-like depression where hair develops ■ Hair = dead, keratinized cells ○ Hair protects body from UV radiation → prevents sunlight from reaching surface of skin

○ Hairless areas = palms, soles, lips, inner labia, and glans penis ● Glands ○ Sebaceous glands ■ Oil glands associated with hair follicles that secrete sebum ■ Keeps hair and skin waterproof ○ Sudoriferous (sweat) glands ■ Responsible for excretion of water and minerals from body (Na, Cl, Mg) ■ Located in dermis ○ Exocrine glands ■ Eccrine glands - respond to temperature increase; primary sweat glands ■ Apocrine glands - respond to emotions; located in axillary (armpit) and groin THE SKELETAL SYSTEM ● 206 bones in human body ○ Axial skeleton - skull, vertebrae, rib cage and sternum, hyoid, inner ear bones ■ Support and protect vital organs ○ Appendicular skeleton - pectoral and pelvic girdles, upper and lower limbs ■ Anchor limbs to axial skeleton and movement ● Attachment point for muscles, support and framework VERTEBRAE ● Cervical (C1-C7) ○ C1 = atlas (support head) ○ C2 = axis (pivot head) ○ C 7 = vertebral prominens ● Thoracic (T1-T12) ○ Attaches to 12 pairs of ribs ○ 7 true ribs, 5 false ribs, 2 floating ribs ● Lumbar (L1-L5) BONE DEVELOPMENT AND GROWTH ● Ossification (osteogenesis) - the formation of bones ● Osteocytes ○ Mature bone cells ○ Osteoblasts (blast = build) - Bone building cells ○ Osteoclasts (clast = chew) - Bone breaking cells ● Synthesized in osteons ○ Consists of layers (lamellae - compact bone tissue that surrounds haversian canal [contains bone’s blood supply])

BONE CLASSIFICATION Bone Classification

Properties and Functions

Type of Bones

Long bones

● Longer than wide ● Hollow, filled with marrow

arm (humerus, radius, ulna), leg (femur, tibia, fibula) clavicle,

Short bones

● Wider than long ● Provide stability and some movement

metacarpals, metatarsals, phalanges (feet and hands)

● Broad, flat surface ● Protect internal organs ● Areas of attachment for muscles

scapula, ribs, sternum, cranium

Irregular bones

● Vary in structure and shape

vertebrae, facial bones, pelvic bones

Sesamoid bones

● Small, round, embedded within tendons

patella

Flat bones

JOINTS ● Ligaments - connect bones to joints ● Tendons - connect muscle to bone (must cross over a joint) ● Hyaline cartilage - covers articulating ends to prevent direct bone contact and cushion the joint JOINT CLASSIFICATION Joint Classification

Properties

Example

● Between bones that closely contact one another ● No movement

Bones in skull

Cartilaginous

● Two or more joined by cartilage ● Minimal movement

Between vertebrae

Synovial

● Free movement (synovial fluid)

Most joints (knee, elbow, hip, shoulder)

Fibrous

SYNOVIAL JOINTS

Synovial Joint

Properties

Example

● Bone with ball shaped head → articulates with cup-shape cavity ● Wide range of movement

Hips, shoulders

Condyloid

● Wide range of movement ● No rotation

Between metacarpals and phalanges, jaw

Gliding

● sliding/twisting movement

Wrist and ankle, true ribs and sternum

Hinge

● One plane of movement

Elbows, phalanges, knees

Pivot

● Rotation around central axis

Proximal end of radius and ulna, C1 and C2 vertebrae

Saddle

● Variety of movement

Carpal and metacarpal of thumb

Ball and Socket

PARTS OF LONG BONE 1) Epiphysis a) Proximal and distal ends b) Joint → covered in hyaline cartilage c) Articulates (forms joints) with other bones 2) Diaphysis a) Shaft of bone b) Length of bone 3) Articular cartilage a) Hyaline cartilage covers epiphyses b) Protects bone ends c) Helps form synovial joints 4) Periosteum a) Tough covering surrounding bones except articular ends b) Continuous with tendons and ligaments c) Helps form and repair bone tissue 5) Compact/Cortical bone a) Tightly packed solid bonel, forms diaphysis wall b) Strength 6) Spongy/Cancellous bone a) Branching and irregular space found in epiphyses b) Reduce body weight, absorb compressive forces 7) Medullary cavity

a) Hollow chamber in diaphysis b) Contains marrow, blood vessels, nerves 8) Marrow a) In spongy bone and medullary cavity b) Red marrow i) Hemopoiesis (1) Blood cell formation (RBC, WBC, platelets) (2) Children - medullary cavity of most bones (3) Adults - spongy bone c) Yellow marrow i) Stores fat BONE DISEASES ● Osteoporosis ○ Loss in bone mineral density ○ Caused by lack of calcium and vitamin D ○ Occurs naturally with age ● Osteogenesis Imperfecta (Brittle bone disease) ○ Genetic ○ insufficient /defective collagen produced → fragile bones ● Osteoarthritis ○ Degenerative joint disease ○ Loss of cushioning cartilage ● Rheumatoid arthritis ○ Autoimmune ○ Bone erosion and deformities ● Spine deformities ○ Lordosis (lumbar) ■ Inward curvature of spine ■ Causes: pregnancy, overweight, poor posture ○ Kyphosis (thoracic) ■ Outward curvature of spine ■ Causes: Age, osteoporosis, poor posture, degenerative disc disease ○ Scoliosis (cervical) ■ “S” curvature ■ Common in teenage girls ● Bone Remodeling ○ Process involving bone formation and deconstruction in response to hormonal and mechanical factors 1) Fracture hematoma forms

2) Fibrocartilaginous callus forms 3) Hard callus forms 4) Bone is remodeled THE NERVOUS SYSTEM ● Receives stimuli from inside and outside of the body ● Allows body to sense and respond to environmental changes internally and externally ● Two major nervous system cells ○ Neurons - receive and transmit chemical signals to the brain ○ Neuroglia - connect and support neurons MAIN PARTS OF NEURONS ● Soma (cell body) ○ Contains cytoplasm, cell membrane, organelles ● Dendrites ○ Extensions from soma that bring info towards the soma ● Axon ○ Extension from soma that info away from soma ○ Single axon projects out of soma ○ Covered by myelin sheath ● Axon terminal ○ End of axon, makes synaptic contact with another cell ● Synapse ○ Gap between neurons that allows signals to pass between neurons ● Info travels into dendrites → travel to soma → move through axon → out axon terminal CLASSIFICATION OF NEURONS ● Bipolar neurons ○ Only 2 dendrites, one from each end ○ Eyes, nose, ears ● Unipolar neurons ○ Single dendrite from soma that divides into 2 branches ○ Sensory neurons - touch, pressure, pain, temp ○ Connects PNS to CNS ● Multipolar neurons ○ Multiple dendrites rise from soma with one axon ○ Brain and spinal cord NEURON FUNCTION

● In spinal cord ● Afferent (sensory) neurons ○ Travel towards CNS ○ Temperature, pain, pressure ● Efferent (motor) neurons ○ Travel away/out of CNS ■ Motor messages from CNS to skeletal muscle, skin or sensory organs ● Interneurons ○ Connect sensory and motor neurons with CNS CNS NEUROGLIAL CELLS ● Produce myelin ○ Microglial cells ■ Protect neurons from disease ■ Remove debris via phagocytosis ○ Oligodendrocytes ■ Next to axons ■ Produce myelin sheath around axons ○ Astrocytes ■ Provide shape, support, and structure ■ Regulate nutrient and ion concentration ■ Form scar tissue ○ Ependymal cells ■ Line interior cavity of CNS PNS NEUROGLIAL CELLS ● Schwann cells - produce myelin sheath in PNS ● Myelin - lipid-protein membrane layer ○ Myelin sheath - Insulator; allows electrical impulses to transmit into cell ○ Neurilemma - surrounds myelin sheath ○ Nodes of Ranvier - narrow gaps in myelin sheath between Schwann cells (PNS) CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS) ● Brain, spinal cord ● Processes info in brain BRAIN ● Control center of body PARTS OF THE BRAIN Name

Location

Function

Includes

Cerebrum

Largest part

Higher mental functions (thought, perception, sensory processing)

● Corpus callosum ● 2 cerebral hemispheres divided into 4 lobes

Cerebellum

Large mass of tissues inferior to occipital lobe, posterior to pons and medulla oblongata

Coordinate complex voluntary muscle movement, balance, posture

● 3 functional areas ○ Cerebrocerebellum, spinocerebellum, vestibulocerebellum

Diencephalon

Between cerebral hemisphere, above midbrain

Process sensory info

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Brain Stem

Posterior to cerebellum

Connects cerebrum to spinal cord, regulate visceral activities (HR, BP)

● Midbrain ● Pons ● Medulla oblongata

Thalamus Hypothalamus Optic tract Pituitary and pineal gland

CEREBRAL HEMISPHERE LOBES Lobes of Cerebral Hemispheres

Location

Functions

Frontal lobe

Front of brain

● Voluntary movement, judgement, problem-solving, planning ● Broca’s area - motor speech

Parietal lobe

Posterior to frontal lobe (separated by central sulcus)

● Process sensory input from skin ● Understanding speech ○ Wernicke’s area - understanding written and spoken language

Temporal lobe

Below frontal and parietal lobes, (separated by lateral sulcus)

● Hearing and language comprehension

Occipital lobe

Forms posterior portion of each cerebral hemisphere

● Visual input from eyes

ADDITIONAL PARTS OF THE BRAIN Part of Brain Thalamus

Location Mass of matter at base of cerebrum

Function ● Organize and coordinate sensory input

Hypothalamus

Below thalamus, forms floor of third ventricle

● Controls endocrine system and hormones that govern long-term effects on body ● Link nervous system to endocrine system ● Circadian rhythm and sleep cycle

Pineal gland

Cone-shaped structure attached to upper diencephalons

● Associated with circadian rhythm

Medulla oblongata

Between pons and spinal cord

● Crucial involuntary functions (breathing, HR, swallowing, BP regulation)

Underside of brainstem; separates midbrain from medulla oblongata

● Relay sensory info from peripheral nerves to higher brain ● Regulate rate of breathing with medulla oblongata

Between diencephalon a...