Balkans Flashcards (Yugoslavia, Balkan Wars, Kosovo) PDF

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HISTORY - BALKANSCAUSES OF CONFLICTPre-Balkan Wars● Ruled by OE for 500 years ● Ethnic groups: Christian, Orthodox, Muslim and Jewish ● Congress of Berlin gave Serbia and Romania independence ● 1878 - Albanian nationalists met to create League of Prizren ○ Defended language/culture threatened by col...

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HISTORY - BALKANS CAUSES OF CONFLICT Pre-Balkan Wars ● ● ● ●

Ruled by OE for 500 years Ethnic groups: Christian, Orthodox, Muslim and Jewish Congress of Berlin gave Serbia and Romania independence 1878 - Albanian nationalists met to create League of Prizren ○ Defended language/culture threatened by collapse of OE ○ 250,000 Albanians lived in in OE, 70% were Islam ○ Albanian nationalism challenged Serbian aspirations in the area

Balkan Wars (1912-1913) ● ● ● ●

Caught up in rivalry of powers, OE lost almost all European territory in 2 wars 1912 - Balkan states attacked OE successfully (Turkey was fighting Italy too) May 1913 - Treaty of London removed European territory ○ Serbia and Austria-Hungary wanted access to sea through Albania ○ Macedonia divided between Balkan allies, Albania given independence June - Serbia and Greece allied against Bulgaria over Macedonia and won its land

First World War ● ● ● ●

Serbian nationalist shot Austro-Hungarian heir, Balkan nationalism challenged them Albania remained neutral but Italy was a threat Bulgaria joined Germany and invades Serbia, but is invaded by Greece 1918 - Serbs occupied Kosovo, populated by Kosovar Albanians (not Slavs)

Creation of Yugoslavia ● ●

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Allies declared union, Serbia’s compensation: ‘Kingdom of Serbs, Croats & Slovenes’ Problems of new state ○ Federation dominated by Serbia survived - largest ethnic group ○ Croats and Slovenes wanted to balance Serb economic political dominance ■ Serbs wanted Yugoslav nation while Croats wanted independent state ○ Yugoslavia name (1929) - attempted to minimise nationalist antagonisms ○ Created by France and Britain to reward Serbia with territory and control ○ Unstable - economic underdevelopment, ethnic tensions, weak institutions 1928 - Italy killed Croatian leader, causing King Alexander (Serbian) to declare a dictatorship in 1929 ○ Armed revolt against this, Communist Party rises up but fails, leaders killed 1929 - renamed Yugoslavia, consisting of the Kingdom and Bosnia and Montenegro Bulgaria and Romania became authoritarian, Greeks had dictatorship, Turkey had Kemal, Albania had King Zog 1939 - Italy took over Albania having previously been a puppet state

Second World War ● ●

1941 - Axis powers invaded Balkans, forced surrender of Yugoslavia in 2 weeks ○ Divided into nations controlled by Germans, Italians, Hungarians Ethnic divisions surfaced in civil war ○ Ustasa (fascist movement ruling Croatia) wanted Croatian independence ○ Croats (Axis-supported) attacked and put Serbs, Roma gypsies, Jews, and non-Croatian minorities in concentration camps

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○ 5-600,000 killed, many expelled becoming refugees Serb resistance to Axis occupation: ○ Royalist and pro-Serbian Chetniks led by Mihailovic ■ Britain supported them, trained army, recognised as official resistance ■ 1941 - involved with struggle between Croats and Bosnian Muslims ■ Muslims committed genocidal atrocities against Serbs ■ Revenge - Chetniks systematically raped, murdered 2000 in Foca ■ Also in Foca - Partisan-German violence (4-sided war) ○ Communist Partisans led by Tito - head of Yugoslav Communist Party (KPJ) ■ Goal to create independent socialist state, majority of followers Serb ■ Disseminated propaganda, established schools/railways/weapons workshops/newspapers/cinemas in Communist proto-state ■ Subject to strict discipline, strategic movements, abandoned villages ■ Guerilla warfare ● Army trained specifically - specialised tactics to combat Axis ● Divide and conquer tactic ● Active retreat - after capturing a village, Partisans retreated, regrouped and counterattacked when facing strong forces ● Knew they would lose so reduced their losses ■ 1943 - after Italy surrendered, Partisans captured their equipment Political difference led to armed conflicts between them ○ Uneasy relations - full scale conflict in 1941 ○ Reprisal killings by Germans led to Chetniks favouring restrained resistance ■ Germans killed 100 opposition soldiers for every German killed ■ 1941 - Mihailovic suggested truce with Germany, Chetniks and Partisans stopped fighting, increased Chetnik-German collaboration ○ Tito remained aggressive, succeeded in driving Germans out, taking over YG ■ Success of Partisans partly due to inclusion of all ethnic groups ■ Strong organisation under Tito against fascist Germany ■ Tactics and strategy - guerilla warfare ■ Brutality and inability of other groups (Ustasa and Chetniks) ■ Support by Allies helped, but only as a result of past successes ○ 1.7m killed during the war, state undermined by internal problems ■ 1m was internal fighting not due to Germans - ethnic tension ■ Internal problems emphasised by foreign invasion and occupation 1944 - Allies switched support from Chetniks to Tito - now a popular war hero ○ After WW2 Mihailovic was captured, charged and executed (1946) ○ Secret police hunted down Chetniks in Serbia ○ Partisans executed >30,000 Ustasa troops/Croat civilians/refugees Political vacuum meant West and Soviets wanted YG ○ 1944 - Kosovo liberated by Partisans hour before Red Army (USSR) arrived ○ Tito negotiated merger between YG govt and his national liberation council ○ 1945 - province annexed to Serbia as an autonomous region

YUGOSLAVIA UNDER TITO (1945-1980) Joseph Broz Tito - rise to power ● ● ● ●

Poor/rural upbringing, 4 years education, 15 siblings - man of the people Entered AHE military, demonstrated leadership, joined Social Democrat party Forced to fight against Serbs in WWI but hated it, sparked nationalism Joined Bolsheviks in 1917 after imprisoned in Russia for opposing war ○ Earned reputation with communists, gained knowledge on revolutions

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Communist Party of YG ○ 130,000 members, Comintern support (USSR advocated world communism) ○ Non-violent initially, won 58/419 seats in Constituent Assembly 1920 ■ 1920 - as a result, party banned as it advocated complete overthrow ■ 1921 - assembly indefinitely banned party and all communist activities ○ 1937 - Tito replaced Gorkic as General Secretary (Stalin shot him in purge) ○ Party in disarray, factional struggles, lack of Comintern support/financial aid ○ Tito reunited party, renewed agreement with Comintern ○ Strong position before WWII - could use war as smoke screen to take power 1945 - head of new govt, won election (with 80%) ○ No opposition was allowed to run, opposition abstained/spoiled votes

Foreign policy ● ●

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1945-8 - YG signed alliances with USSR, Poland, Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia ○ Cooperation with USSR and satellite states 1948 - YG split from Soviets, as a result of: ○ YG tried to capture Trieste after WWII, Stalin tried to prevent him ○ YG wanted to apply for Marshall Aid ○ Stalin did not respect Tito’s plans to form potentially powerful Eastern European bloc outside Moscow direct control ■ Plans to absorb Albania ■ Plans to enter economic cooperation with Bulgaria ■ Supporting communists in Greece against Stalin’s wishes ○ Led to assassination attempts against Tito Representatives summoned to Moscow, Bulgaria caved in 1947 - Cominform (coordinated communist parties in other states) left Belgrade HQ 1948 - YG expelled from Cominform by satellite states ○ YG arrested Soviet spies and Stalinists ○ YG sent letter to Moscow breaking off relations - YG enjoyed Western influence but some in country rejected it ○ No relations with Eastern Bloc 1949 - Stalin’s candidate to replace Tito killed in prison Turned to the west ○ 1949 - Tito denounces USSR in UN General Assembly for aggressive actions ■ US conflicts with USSR over YG getting Eastern European UNSC seat ○ A month later US alliance began, opposing USSR in exchange for sovereignty ○ Respected Tito challenging Stalin, offered financial enticements to continue ■ Marshall Aid - $150m ■ 1950 - US gave loans of $40m, British gave £3m for food shortages ○ 1950s - economic aid for social issues and military assistance 1961 - YG led Non-Aligned Movement, established in Belgrade, between US/USSR ○ Balancing act agreed with by Egypt/India/etc. in Badung Conference (1960) ○ West: ■ 1960 - loans from IMF ($76m), US ($100m), Europe ($100m) ○ USSR: ■ 1953 - Stalin died, replaced by Kruschev, Tito resumes relations on equal footing as an independent country, but never fully recovered ■ Full diplomatic relations restored with USSR and Eastern bloc ■ 1961 - 5-year trade agreement with Soviets ($800m) General themes ○ Never allows foreign power to have more control in YG than him ○ International reputation for charisma and strength, illustrated by NAM

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Foreign policy helped reputation in YG - economically beneficial to population Gains disproportionate power as an ally in African post-independence states

Domestic policy/consolidation of power ●

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1945 - Allies demanded Chetnik integration so referendum for monarchy held ○ League of Communists won, led to Mihailovic execution ○ Ustasa lacked funding/support (German defeat) so Partisans regained land ■ 1947 - Ustasa leaders executed Constitution ○ 1945 - constitutional elections, assembly proclaims YG as a Republic ○ 1946 - new constitution based on 1936 Soviet version, people’s democracy ■ Communists took over to ‘establish people’s democracy’ ■ Gave republics the right to secede, importance of equality (ethnic) ○ Tried to balance power between ethnic groups/constituent republics, while repressing resurgent nationalism ○ Tito declared President 1953 - new constitution removed referral to govt/ministers ○ Replaced with Federal Executive Council (FEC), President presided over it Wanted to offset Serb domination - supported minorities, split Serbia up ○ 1966 - dismissed prominent Serbian official Rankovic (under Tito) ○ Serbia, Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Montenegro and Macedonia were republics (Kosovo and Vojvodina were autonomous provinces in 1945) ○ Decision-making dependent on republic’s consent - inefficient ○ Different republics had different aims - divided, inefficient ○ Unity relies on Tito’s cult Never held democratic elections - self-management, rule was non-centralised ○ Elections held every 5 years after 1953 for republic’s parliaments ○ Polyarchy created - power invested in multiple people (republic Presidents) ○ Candidates proposed by League of Communists of Yugoslavia or by Socialist Alliance of Working People of Yugoslavia ○ 1963 - after being re-elected twice, Tito give unlimited Presidential term ■ No successor named - one-man, single-party state - a personal dictatorship ○ No political opposition ○ Devolved power to workers’ councils Kosovo ○ Govt implemented policies favouring Albanians, encouraged Serb migration out of Kosovo ○ 1968 - students rioted in Pristina, declared ‘Republic for Kosovo’ ○ 1969 - Pristina University established, language of instruction added Albanian to Serbo-Croat, Albanian flag allowed to be flown by nationalists 1974 - new constitution attempted to solve issues between republics and govt ○ Legislation gave Kosovo and Vojvodina equivalent status ○ Each constitution lessened power of republic, increased power of each state

Treatment of opposition ●

1944 - OZNA created, used to hunt Chetniks after WWII ○ Facade of diplomacy helped authoritarianism - domestic, even international murders not worth investigating by foreign powers ○ Rumours maintained fear in population, murders covered up ○ Rounded up real as well as imagined political enemies ■ Imagined opponents were killed without trial/investigation ■ 1944-46 - killed 10 hectares - put under cooperative or govt control ■ 1950 - 21.9% of arable land, 18.1% of households were collectivised ○ Equality and socialism ■ Workers entitled to shares of profit ■ Focus on infrastructure projects, especially electricity in rural areas ○ 1946 - 5-year Plan - aim of social not state ownership of means of production ■ However decisions made at federal level to prevent inefficiency ○ ‘Youth Work Actions’ infused with socialist control, showed social unity ■ Voluntary labour activities for youth, aim to build roads/railways/etc. ■ Organised at local, republic and federal levels ■ 1947 - 242km Samac-Sarajevo railway opened ■ However way for communism to infiltrate daily life, culture and society ○ Treatment of LDRs ■ Granted special tax relief/aid grants for equality, but YG came first ■ LDR primarily produced raw materials/agricultural goods, their prices were suppressed - contradiction in economic policy to aid LDRs ○ Nationalisation of private assets ■ Focused on property of German YG citizens who opposed liberation ■ Helped Tito consolidate power by removing wealth of opposition 1950-70 - second development stage - social self-management ○ 1960s - economic boom as a result of foreign loans ○ 4 ‘D’ base - de-bureaucratisation/decentralisation/democratisation/de-statism ■ Focused on reducing state management in firms ■ Worker councils controlled firms - made of employees, each with vote ■ Most influential council members were members of Communist Party ■ Councils appointed management - so most managers Party-approved ○ International economics and policy ■ Combined economics with increased influence in Africa/Middle East ■ 1951 - construction company Energoprojekt founded, took projects in Libya/Kuwait/Zambia etc., as 16th largest construction globally in 1980 ■ Connected to leadership in NAM ■ High foreign debt due to loans, 1954 - $400m, 1980 - $18.9bn ■ Smart foreign policy made this possible (with help of NAM) ○ Focus on LDRs ■ Military investments in Bosnia ■ 1956 - development fund for regions introduced ○ Ideology

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■ Economists argued for need for free market, forced to leave positions 1970-80 - third development stage - associated labour (to reinforce previous stage) ○ Focused on theory of self-management ■ All industrial firms restructured - ‘organisations of associated labour’ ■ Important managers still chosen and influenced by politics ○ Organisations brought into health/education sectors ○ Trade unions more common ■ Non-political strikers’ demands (eg. pay rises) usually met ○ 1970-75 - 5th 5-year Plan focused on LDRs ■ Led to higher growth rates in LDRs than DRs Statistics for results of policies ○ 1950 - 22nd GDP in Europe but one of highest unemployment rates ○ Trade deficits increased - 10% of GDP (1970), 50% of GDP (1980) ○ Unemployment increased - 7% (1970), 12% (1980) ○ Brain drain ■ Good education but limited opportunities - skilled workers left to work ■ Illegal emigration until mid-1960s - high level of educated emigration ■ 1970 - 20% YG labour force employed abroad (1.1m workers) ○ Hyperinflation and deprecation ■ Pre-1965 - dinar value had been 700 to $1, new dinar was 12.5 to $1 ○ Centralised leadership continued - shows failure of 4 ‘D’s especially destatism ○ 1968 - Belgrade student/worker strikes for living conditions/unemployment ○ 1970 - from this point on YG was net importer of agricultural products ■ 29% of population worked in agriculture - inefficiency of associated labour/self-management system ○ Yom Kippur crisis affected YG foreign loans ■ Major importer of oil, US loans renegotiated after crisis - foreign debt increased 20% annually from then on

Social policy ● ●

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1953 - constitution gives republics responsibility for education, healthcare and culture Religion ○ Atheist state but no official policy of suppression/persecution based on beliefs ■ Discrimination - practicing Christians/Muslims barred from civil service ■ Religious workers were often paid less ○ Religion often ridiculed in education, teachers told to have secular orientation ○ Govt carried out public campaigns against religion before 1954 law introduced ■ Imprisoned/tortured/killed many members of clergy ○ 1954 - law guaranteed religious freedom, improved religion/clergy treatment ■ Potentially due to foreign influence - pandering towards Muslim members or potential members of NAM ■ Also increasing reputation for oil-rich nations - YG relied on oil imports ■ However Bosnian Muslims denied autonomy on religious grounds ○ 1974 - constitution guaranteed freedom of religion, recognised separation of church and state ■ By 1980 - all republics enacted laws to reaffirm constitution promises ○ Statistics show great change under Tito ■ 1948 - 99% claimed to be deeply religious ■ 1964 - 70% claimed to be deeply religious Education ○ Problem in development - illiteracy ■ 1931 - illiteracy rate of 46% ■ Means of production collectively owned - every worker should have good education

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1958 - General Law on Education ■ Created vocational/technical schools with 4-year programs, especially at adult/professional level, guaranteeing workers education ■ Established uniform-YG education system for 7-15y olds ■ Only partially successful - high dropout rates ● Croatia - 20%, Kosmet - 50% ■ No mention of pre-primary education (lacking in YG) 1952- workers universities established, vocational education implemented ■ Tried to combat high unemployment ■ Taught self-management theory to reinforce economic doctrine 1972 - 217 workers universities, 394,000 participants, 10m in public lectures ■ Despite this, university rates high - 66% of post-secondary enrolment Statistics positive ■ 1945-72 - primary enrolment x2, secondary x10, higher education x12 ● 98% of 7-15y olds had elementary education ■ Significant advances in female literacy rates, but regional differences ● Slovenia - 1.3%, Kosovo - 50%

Culture ○ Encouraged/embraced regional diversity (didn’t creating YG identity by force) ■ 3 major religious groups, 4 major languages, 5 major ethnic groups ■ Split between 6 republics and 2 autonomous regions ■ Languages all of used in regions for instruction/education Women ○ 1953 constitution enshrined equality between the sexes ■ Included equal pay, female maternity leave ○ However ■ 79.2% of unmarried women worked vs 47.1% of married women ■ Views and restrictions societal not legal - harder to change ○ Welfare for women was supported, justified by their contribution to society ■ Having children was encouraged (reinforces utilitarian narrative) ○ Women dominated some fields of work ■ 1979 - 85% of pharmacology workers, 87% of social workers ■ Women were 83% of students in two-year medical courses ○ However representation was worse in stereotypically male roles ■ Only represented 25% of medical doctors, ○ Nominal political representation (a few select positions) ■ Sanitary products/makeup hard to acquire ■ Women’s basic needs/products ignored - social attitudes didn’t shift

DECADE OF CHANGE (1980-1989) Rise of Serb nationalism ● ●

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1980 - Tito died, so could no longer keep Serbia in check ○ VP Kolisevski appointed as head of state for 2 weeks ○ A yearly cycle of leaders followed - inefficient, couldn’t make changes 1981 - Kosovo student protest about food quality in Pristina University ○ Protests grew widespread, critical of authorities ○ Tanks from the govt brought troops, state of emergency declared, 100s killed ○ Arrests made (trials/imprisonment radicalised future KLA members) ○ Caused suppressed nationalism to emerge, increased lack of trust/hostility ○ Purges of party officials took pace 1980s - propaganda from Belgrade (based on perceptions) impacted Serb opinion

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○ Rape/intimidation stories 1986 - Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts (SANU) memorandum released ○ YG’s most prominent academic body, Stambolic asked academy to investigate process of reform in Serbia and suggest recommendations ○ Argued that Serbs were oppressed in YG, and faced genocide in Kosovo ○ Blamed on dysfunctional YG govt and 1974 constitution making republics ○ Highlighted fears/tensions of YG as country fragmented after Tito’s death ○ Call to arms by radical Serbs - existence as a nation was ‘under threat’ ○ Stambolic and communist authoriti...