BIO 103 Final Exam Study Guide CRN 10016 T-R 042320 PDF

Preview

Summary

Final Study Guide for Spring 2020 ;Covers 13 Chapters: A View of Life, Atoms and Molecules, The Chemistry of Life: Organic Compounds, The Organization of Cells, Biological Membranes, Cell Communication, Energy and Metabolism, How Cells Make ATP: Energy-Releasing Pathways, Photosynthesis: Capturing E...

Description

BIO 103 CRN: 10016 Principles of Biology Final Exam Study Guide Final Exam will be administered on Thursday, April 30th on Blackboard. The exam will open at 8:00 a.m. and close at 11:59 p.m. (CST). The exam will be timed. You will have 2 hours (120 minutes) and only one attempt to complete the final exam. The final exam is worth 20% of your overall grade. It will consist of 50 question items. Know the following terms and or processes Chapter 1: A View of Life I .Ma j orThe me sofBi ol ogy Ce l lt he or y I I .Cha r a c t e r i s t i c sofLi f e A. Or ga ni s msa r ec ompos e dofc e l l s B. Or ga ni s msgr o wa ndde ve l op C. Or ga ni s msr e gul a t et he i rme t a bol i cpr oc e s s e s D. Or ga ni s msr e s pondt os t i mul i E. Or ga ni s msr e pr oduc e F. P opul a t i onse vol vea ndbe c omea da pt e dt ot hee nvi r onme nt I I I .Le ve l sofBi ol ogi c a lOr ga ni z a t i on A. Or ga ni s msha ves e ve r a ll e ve l sofor ga ni z a t i on B. S e ve r a ll e v e l sofe c ol ogi c a lor ga ni z a t i onc a nbei de nt i fie d I V. I nf or ma t i onTr a ns f e r A. DNA t r a ns mi t si nf or ma t i onf r om onege ne r a t i ont ot hene xt B. I nf or ma t i oni st r a ns mi t t e dbyc he mi c a la nde l e c t r i c a ls i gna l s C. Or ga ni s msa l s oc ommuni c a t ei nf or ma t i ont oonea not he r V. TheEne r gyofLi f e VI .Ev ol ut i on:TheBa s i cUni f yi ngConc e ptofBi ol o gy A. Bi ol ogi s t sus eabi nomi a ls ys t e mf orna mi ngor ga ni s ms B. T a x onomi cc l a s s i fic a t i oni shi e r a r c hi c a l C. S ys t e ma t i s t sc l a s s i f yor ga ni s msi nt hr e edoma i ns D. S pe c i e sada pti nr e s pons et oc ha nge si nt he i re nvi r onme nt E. Na t ur a ls e l e c t i oni sa ni mpor t a ntme c hani s m bywhi c he vol ut i onpr oc e e ds F. P opul a t i onse vol vea sar e s ul tofs e l e c t i vepr e s s ur e sf r om c ha nge si nt he i re nvi r onme nt VI I .ThePr oc e s sofSc i e nc e A. S t e psoft hes c i e nt i ficme t hod B. A h ypot he s i si sat e s t a bl es t a t e me nt

Chapter 2: Atoms and Molecules: The Chemical Basis of Life I .

El e me nt sa ndAt oms A.Ana t om i suni que l yi de nt i fie dbyi t snumbe rofpr ot ons B.Pr ot onspl usne ut r onsde t e r mi nea t omi cma s s i . I s ot ope sofa ne l e me ntdi ffe ri nnumbe rofne ut r ons C.El e c t r onsmov ei nor bi t a l sc or r e s pondi ngt oe ne r gyl e ve l s I I . Che mi c a lRe a c t i ons A.At omsf or mc ompoundsa ndmol e c ul e s B.S i mpl e s t ,mol e c ul a r ,a nds t r uc t ur a lc he mi c a lf or mul a sgi vedi ffe r e nti nf or ma t i on

C.Onemol eofa nys ubs t a nc ec ont a i nst hes a menumbe rofuni t s D.Che mi c a le qua t i onsde s c r i bec he mi c a lr e a c t i ons I I I . Che mi c a lBonds A.I nc o va l e ntbondse l e c t r onsa r es ha r e d B. Thef unc t i onofamol e c ul ei sr e l a t e dt oi t ss ha pe C.Cova l e ntbondsc a nbenonpol a rorpol a r D.I oni cbondsf or m be t we e nc a t i onsa nda ni ons E. Hydr oge nbondsa r ewe a ka t t r a c t i ons I V. Re do xRe a c t i ons V. Wa t e r( pr ope r t i e sof ) A.Hydr oge nbondsf or m be t we e nwa t e rmol e c ul e s B. Wa t e rmol e c ul e si nt e r a c twi t hhydr ophi l i cs ubs t a nc e sb yhydr oge nbondi ng C.Wa t e rhe l psma i nt a i nas t a bl et e mpe r a t ur e VI . Ac i ds ,Ba s e s ,a ndS a l t s A.pH i sac onv e ni e ntme a s ur eofa c i di t y B.Buffe r smi ni mi z epH c hange C.Ana c i da ndaba s er e a c tt of or m as a l t

Chapter 3: The Chemistry of Life: Organic Compounds I .

Ca r bonAt omsa ndOr ga ni cMol e c ul e s A.I s ome r sha vet hes a memol e c ul a rf or mul abutdi ffe r e nts t r uc t ur e s B.Func t i ona lgr oupsc ha nget hepr ope r t i e sofor ga ni cmol e c ul e s C.Ma nybi ol ogi c a lmol e c ul e sa r epol yme r s I I . Ca r bohydr a t e s A.Monos a c c ha r i de sa r es i mpl es uga r s B.Di s a c c ha r i de sc ons i s toft womonos a c c har i deuni t s C.Pol ys a c c ha r i de sc a ns t or ee ne r gyorpr ovi des t r uc t ur e D.Somemodi fie da ndc ompl e xc a r bohydr a t e sha ves pe c i a lr ol e s I I I . Li pi ds A.Tr i a c yl gl yc e r ol( ne ut r a lf a t )i sf or me df r om gl yc e r ola ndt hr e ef a t t ya c i ds B.Sa t ur a t e da nduns a t ur a t e df a t t ya c i dsdi ffe ri nphys i c a lpr ope r t i e s C.Phos phol i pi dsa r ec ompone nt sofc e l lme mbr a ne s D.Ca r ot e noi dsa ndma nyot he rpi gme nt sa r ede r i ve df r om i s opr e neuni t s E.S t e r oi dsc ont a i nf ourr i ngsofc a r bona t oms F . Somec he mi c alme di a t or sa r el i pi ds I V. Pr ot e i ns A.Ami noa c i dsa r et hes ubuni t sofpr ot e i ns i . Pe pt i debondsj oi na mi noa c i ds B.Pr ot e i nsha vef ourl e ve l sofor gani z a t i on i . Thea mi noac i ds e que nc eofapr ot e i nde t e r mi ne si t sc onf or ma t i on V. Nuc l e i cAc i ds A.Somenuc l e ot i de sa r ei mpor t a nti ne ne r gyt r a ns f e r sa ndot he rc e l lf unc t i ons

Cha pt e r4 :Or ga ni z a t i onoft heCe l l Thec e l l :ba s i cuni tofl i f e .  Thec e l lt he or yi sauni f yi ngc onc e pti nbi ol ogy  Theor ga ni z a t i ona ndba s i cf unc t i onsofa l lc e l l sa r es i mi l a r  Ce l l ss i z ei sl i mi t e d  Ce l ls i z ea nds ha pea r ea da pt e dt of unc t i on Me t hodsf ors t udyi ngc e l l s .  Li ghtmi c r os c ope sa r eus e dt os t udys t a i ne dorl i vi ngc e l l s .  El e c t r onmi c r os c ope spr ovi deahi ghr e s ol ut i oni ma get ha tc a nbegr e a t l yma gni fie d.  SEM a ndTEM f unc t i ons  Pr oka r yot i ca nde uka r yot i cc e l l s .  Or ga ne l l e sofpr oka r yot i cc e l l sa r enots ur r ounde db yme mbr a ne s .  Ma nyOr ga ne l l e sofe uka r yot i cc e l l sa r es ur r ounde dbyme mbr a ne s .  Thec e l lnuc l e us .

1-2

 Ri bos ome sma nuf a c t ur epr ot e i nsi nt hec yt opl a s m. Me mbr a nousor ga ne l l e si nt hec yt opl as m.  Thee ndopl a s mi cr e t i c ul um i samul t i f unc t i ona lne t wor kofme mbr a ne s . i . TheERi st hepr i ma r ys i t eofme mbr a nea s s e mbl yf orc ompone nt soft he e ndome mbr a nes ys t e m.  TheGol gic ompl e xpr oc e s s e s ,s or t s ,a ndr out e spr ot e i nsf r om t heERt odi ffe r e ntpa r t s oft hee ndome mbr a nes ys t e m.  Lys os ome sa r ec ompa r t me nt sf ordi ge s t i on.  Va c uol e sa r el a r ge ,flui dfil l e ds a c swi t hava r i e t yoff unc t i ons .  Pe r oxi s ome sme t a bol i z es ma l lor ga ni cc ompounds .  Mi t oc hondr i aa ndc hl or opl a s t sa r ee ne r gy c onve r t i ngor ga ne l l e s . i . Mi t oc hondr i ama keATPt hr ougha e r obi cr e s pi r a t i on.  Chl or opl a s t sc onve r tl i ghte ne r gyt oc he mi c a le ne r gyt hr oughphot os ynt he s i s . Thec yt os ke l e t on.  Mi c r ot ubul e sa r ehol l o wc yl i nde r s .  Ce nt r os ome sa ndc e nt r i ol e sf unc t i oni nc e l ldi vi s i on.  Ci l i aa ndfla ge l l aa r ec ompos e dofmi c r ot ubul e s .  Mi c r ofil a me nt sc ons i s tofi nt e r t wi ne ds t r i ngsofa c t i n.  I nt e r me di a t efil a me nt she l ps t a bi l i z ec e l ls ha pe .

Chapter 5: Biological Membranes The Structure of Biological Membranes

I . I I . I I I .

I V.

V. VI .

A. Phos phol i pi dsf or m bi l a y e r si nwa t e r . B. Theflui dmos a i cmode le xpl a i nsme mbr a nes t r uc t ur e . i . Bi ol ogi c a lme mbr a ne sa r et wodi me ns i ona lflui ds . i i . Bi ol ogi c a lme mbr a ne sf us ea ndf or mc l os e dve s i c l e s . i i i . Me mbr a nepr ot e i nsi nc l udei nt e gr a la ndpe r i phe r a lpr ot e i ns . i v . Pr ot e i nsar eor i e nt e das ymme t r i c a l l ya c r os st hebi l a ye r . Ove r vi e w ofMe mbr a nePr ot e i nFunc t i ons . Ce l lMe mbr a neS t r uc t ur ea ndPe r me a bi l i t y . A.Bi ol ogi c a lme mbr a ne spr e s e ntaba r r i e rt opol a rmol e c ul e s . B.Tr a ns por tpr ot e i nst r a ns f e rmol e c ul e sa c r os sme mbr a ne s . Pa s s i veTr a ns por t . A.Di ffus i onoc c ur sdo wnac onc e nt r a t i ongr adi e nt . B.Os mos i si sdi ffus i onofwa t e ra c r os sas e l e c t i ve l ype r me a bl eme mbr a ne . C.F a c i l i t a t e ddi ffus i onoc c ur sdo wnac onc e nt r a t i ongr a di e nt . Ac t i veTr a ns por t . A.Ac t i vet r a ns por ts ys t e ms“ pump”s ubs t a nc e sa ga i ns tt he i rc onc e nt r a t i ongr a di e nt s . B.Car r i e rpr ot e i nsc a nt r a ns por toneort wos ol ut e s . C.Cot r ans por ts ys t e msi ndi r e c t l ypr ovi dee ne r gyf ora c t i vet r ans por t . Ex oc yt os i sa ndEndoc yt os i s . A.I ne x oc yt os i s ,ve s i c l e se x por tl a r gemol e c ul e s . B.I ne ndoc yt os i s ,t hec e l li mpor t sma t e r i a l s . Ce l lJ unc t i ons . A.Anc hor i ngj unc t i onsc onne c tc e l l sofa ne pi t he l i a ls he e t . B.Ti ghtj unc t i onss e a loffi nt e r c e l l ul a rs pa c e sbe t we e ns omea ni ma lc e l l s . C. Gap junctions- communicating junctions D.Desmosomes and hemidesmosomes

Chapter 6: Cell Communication I . Ce l lc ommuni c a t i on I I . Se ndi ngSi gna l s I I I . Re c e pt i on a . Ce l l sr e gul a t er e c e pt i on. I V. Thr e et ype sofr e c e pt or soc c uront hec e l ls ur f a c e . V. S omer e c e pt or sa r el oc a t e di ns i det hec e l l .

VI . S i gna lt r a ns duc t i on a .S i gna l i ngmol e c ul e sc a na c ta smol e c ul a rs wi t c he s . b .I onc hanne l – l i nke dr e c e pt or sope norc l os ec ha nne l s . c . G pr ot e i n– l i nke dr e c e pt or si ni t i a t es i gna lt r a ns duc t i on. d.Se c ondme s s e nge r sa r ei nt r a c e l l ul ars i gna l i nga ge nt s . e . Ma nya c t i va t e di nt r ac e l l ul a rr e c e pt or sa r et r a ns c r i pt i onf a c t or s . f .S c a ffol dpr ot e i nsi nc r e a s ee ffic i e nc y . g .S i gna l sc a nbet r a ns mi t t e di nmor et ha nonedi r e c t i on. VI I . Re s pons et os i gna lt r a ns duc t i onpa t hwa ys

Chapter 7: Energy and Metabolism I . Bi ol ogi c a lwor k. a . Or ga ni s msc a r r youtc onve r s i onsbe t we e npot e nt i a le ne r gy . I I . Thel a wsoft he r modyna mi c s . a . Thet ot a le ne r gyi nt heuni ve r s edoe snotc hange . b . Thee nt r opyoft heuni v e r s ei si nc r e a s i ng. I I I . Ene r gya ndme t a bol i s m. a . Ent ha l pyi st het ot a lpo t e nt i a le ne r gyofas ys t e m. b . Fr e ee ne r gyi sa va i l a bl et odoc e l lwor k. I V. Che mi c a lr e a c t i onsi n vol vec ha nge si nf r e ee ne r gy. V. F r e ee ne r gyde c r e a s e sdur i nga ne x e r goni cr e a c t i on. VI . Fr e ee ne r gyi nc r e as e sdur i nga ne nde r goni cr e a c t i on. a . Di ffus i oni sa ne x e r goni cpr oc e s s . b . Fr e ee ne r gyc ha nge sde pe ndont hec onc e nt r a t i onsofr e a c t a nt sa ndpr oduc t s . c . Ce l l sdr i vee nde r goni cr e a c t i onsbyc oupl i ngt he mt oe x e r goni cr e a c t i ons . VI I . ATP ,t hee ne r gyc ur r e nc yoft hec e l l . a . ATPdona t e se ne r gyt hr ought het r a ns f e rofaphos pha t egr oup. b . ATPl i nkse x e r goni cande nde r goni cr e a c t i ons . c . Thec e l lma i nt a i nsave r yhi ghr a t i oofATPt oADP . VI I I . Ene r gyt r a ns f e ri nr e doxr e a c t i ons . a . Mos te l e c t r onc a r r i e r st r a ns f e rhydr oge na t oms . I X. Enz yme s . a . Al lr e a c t i onsha vear e qui r e de ne r gyofa c t i va t i on. X. Al le nz yme sl o we rar e a c t i on’ sa c t i va t i one ne r gy . a . Ane nz ymewor ksbyf or mi nga ne nz yme s ubs t r a t ec ompl e x . b . Enz yme sa r es pe c i fic . c . Mos te nz yme sr e qui r ec of a c t or s . d.Enz yme sa r emos te ffe c t i vea topt i ma lc ondi t i ons . e . Enz yme sa r eor gani z e di nt ot e a msi nme t a bol i cpa t hwa ys . f . Thec e l lr e gul a t e se nz yma t i ca c t i vi t y . g . Enz yme sa r ei nhi bi t e dbyc e r t a i nc he mi c a la ge nt s . XI . Somedr ugsa r ee nz ymei nhi bi t or s .

Chapter 8: How Cells Make ATP: Energy-Releasing Pathways I .Re do xRe a c t i ons I I .TheF ourSt a ge sofAe r obi cRe s pi r a t i on A.I ngl yc ol ys i s ,gl uc os eyi e l dst wopyr uva t e s B.Pyr uv a t ei sc onve r t e dt oa c e t ylCoA C.Thec i t r i ca c i dc yc l eox i di z e sa c e t ylgr oupsde r i ve df r om a c e t ylCoA D.Thee l e c t r ont r a ns por tc ha i ni sc oupl e dt oATPs ynt he s i s E.Ae r obi cr e s pi r a t i onofonegl uc os eyi e l dsama xi mum of3 6t o3 8ATPs F . Ce l l sr e gul a t ea e r obi cr e s pi r a t i on I I I . Ene r gyYi e l dofNut r i e nt sOt he rt ha nGl uc os e

Chapter 9: Photosynthesis: Capturing Energy I . Li ghta ndphot os ynt he s i s . I I . Chl or opl as t s . a . Chl or oph yl li sf oundi nt het hyl a koi dme mbr a ne.

1-4

b . Chl or oph yl li st hema i nphot os ynt he t i cpi gme nt . I I I . Ove r vi e w ofpho t os ynt he s i s . a . ATPa ndNADPH a r et hepr oduc t soft hel i ght de pe nde ntr e a c t i ons b . Ca r bohydr a t e sa r epr oduc e ddur i ngt hec a r bonfix a t i onr e a c t i on I V. Thel i ght de pe nde ntr e a c t i ons . V. Thel i ghti nde pe nde nt( da r kr e ac t i ons )Ca l vi nBe ns onCy c l e

Chapter 10: Chromosomes, Mitosis, and Meiosis I . Euka r y ot i cc hr omos ome s . a . DNA i sor ga ni z e di nt oi nf or ma t i ona luni t sc a l l e dge ne s . b . DNA i spa c ka ge di nahi ghl yor ga ni z e dwa yi nc hr omos ome s . c . Chr omos omenumbe ra ndi nf or ma t i ona lc ont e ntdi ffe ra mongs pe c i e s . I I . Thec e l lc yc l ea ndmi t os i s . a . Chr omos ome sdupl i c a t edur i ngi nt e r pha s e . i .Dur i ngpr opha s e , dupl i c a t e dc hr omos ome sbe c omevi s i bl ewi t ht he mi c r os c ope ;t henuc l e a re nve l opebr e a ksdo wn. b . Dupl i c a t e dc hr omos ome sl i neupont hemi dpl anedur i ngme t apha s e. c . Dur i nga na pha s e , c hr omos ome smovet o wa r dt hepol e s . d.Dur i ngt e l opha s e ,t wos e pa r a t enuc l e if or m. e . Cyt oki ne s i sf or mst wos e pa r a t edaught e rc e l l s . f . Mi t os i spr oduc e st woc e l l sge ne t i c a l l yi de nt i c a lt ot hepa r e ntc e l l . g . La c ki ngnuc l e i ,pr oka r yot e sdi vi debybi na r yfis s i on. I I I . Re gul a t i onoft hec e l lc yc l e . I V. S e xua lr e pr oduc t i ona ndme i os i s . a . Me i os i spr oduc e sha pl oi dc e l l swi t huni quege nec ombi na t i ons . b . Pr opha s eIi nc l ude ss yna ps i sa ndc r os s i ngo ve r . c . Dur i ngme i os i sI ,homol ogousc hr omos ome ss e pa r a t e . d.Chr oma t i dss e pa r a t ei nme i os i sI I . e . Mi t os i sa ndme i os i sl e a dt oc ont r a s t i ngout c ome s . V. S e xua ll i f ec yc l e s .

Chapter 11: The Basic Principles of Heredity I . Me nde l ’ spr i nc i pl e sofi nhe r i t anc e a . Al l e l e ss e pa r a t ebe f or ega me t e sa r ef or me d:t hepr i nc i pl eofs e gr e ga t i on. b . Al l e l e soc c upyc or r e s pondi ngl oc ionhomol ogousc hr omos ome s . c . A monohybr i dc r os si nvol ve si ndi vi dua l swi t hdi ffe r e nta l l e l e sofagi ve nl oc us . d . A di h ybr i dc r os si nvol ve si ndi vi dua l st ha tha vedi ffe r e nta l l e l e sa tt wol oc i . e . Al l e l e sonnonhomol ogousc hr omos ome sa r er a ndoml ydi s t r i but e di nt oga me t e s : t hepr i nc i pl eofi nde pe nde nta s s or t me nt . e nt ur y. f . Re c ogni t i onofMe nde l ’ swor kc a medur i ngt hee a r l y2 0thc I I . Us i ngpr oba bi l i t yt opr e di c tMe nde l i a ni nhe r i t a nc e . a . Ther ul e sofpr oba bi l i t yc a nbea ppl i e dt oava r i e t yofc a l c ul a t i ons . b . Thel a wsofpr obabi l i t ypr e di c tt hel i ke l i hoodofge ne t i ce ve nt s . c . Thepr oduc tr ul epr e di c t st hec ombi ne dpr oba bi l i t i e sofi nde pe nde nte ve nt s . I I I . I nhe r i t a nc ea ndc hr omos ome s . a . Li nke dge ne sdonota s s or ti nde pe nde nt l y . b . Ca l c ul a t i ngt hef r e que nc yofc r os s i ngo ve rr e ve a l st hel i ne a ror de rofl i nke d ge ne sonac hr omos ome . c . Se xi sge ne r a l l yde t e r mi ne dbys e xc hr omos ome s . I V. Ext e ns i onsofMe nde l i a nge ne t i c s a . Domi na nc ei snota l wa ysc ompl e t e .( I nc ompl e t edomi na nc ea ndCodomi na nc e ) b . Mul t i pl ea l l e l e sf oral oc usma ye xi s ti napopul a t i on. c . Al l e l e sofdi ffe r e ntl oc ima yi nt e r a c tt opr oduc eaphe not ype. d .I npol yge ni ci nhe r i t a nc e ,t heoffs pr i nge xhi bi tac ont i nuousva r i a t i oni n phe not ype s . e . Ge ne si nt e r a c twi t ht hee nvi r onme ntt os ha pephe not ype.

Ch1 2 :DNA:TheCa r r i e rofGe ne t i cI nf or ma t i on

I . Evi de nc eofDNA a st heHe r e di t a r yMa t e r i a l a . DNA i st het r a ns f or mi ngf a c t ori nba c t e r i a . b . DNA i st hege ne t i cma t e r i a li nc e r t a i nvi r us e s . I I . TheSt r uc t ur eofDNA a . Nuc l e ot i de sc a nbec ova l e nt l yl i nke di na nyor de rt of or ml ongpol yme r s . I I I . DNA i sma deoft wopol ynuc l e ot i dec hai nsi nt e r t wi ne dt of or m adoubl ehe l i x . I V. I ndoubl e s t r a nde dDNA,hydr oge nbondsf or m be t we e nA a ndTa ndbe t we e nG a nd C. V. DNA Re pl i c a t i on a . Me s e l s ona ndS t a hlve r i fie dt heme c ha ni s m ofs e mi c ons e r va t i ver e pl i c a t i on. b . Se mi c ons e r va t i v er e pl i c a t i one x pl a i nst hepe r pe t ua t i onofmut a t i ons . c . DNA r e pl i c a t i onr e qui r e spr ot e i n“ ma c hi ne r y” . d.Enz yme spr oof r e ada ndr e pa i re r r or si nDNA. e . Te l ome r e sc a pe uka r yot i cc hr omos omee nds .

I . Ch13 :Ge neEx pr e s s i on I I . I nf or ma t i onFl o wf r om DNA t oPr ot e i n:AnOve r vi e w

a . DNA i st r a ns c r i be dt of or m RNA b . RNAi st r a ns l a t e dt of or m apol ype pt i de c . Bi ol ogi s t sc r a c ke dt hege ne t i cc odei nt he1 9 6 0 s d.Thege ne t i cc odei svi r t ua l l yuni ve r s a l e . Thege ne t i cc odei sr e dunda nt I I I . Tr a ns c r i pt i on a . Thes ynt he s i sofmRNA i nc l ude si ni t i a t i on,e l onga t i on,a ndt e r mi na t i on b . Me s s e nge rRNAc ont a i nsba s es e que nc e st ha tdonotdi r e c t l yc odef orpr ot e i n c . Euka r yot i cmRNA i smodi fie da f t e rt r a ns c r i pt i ona ndbe f or et r a ns l a t i on d.Bi ol ogi s t sde ba t et hee vol ut i onofe uka r yot i cge nes t r uc t ur e I V. Tr a ns l a t i on a . Ana mi noa c i di sa t t a c he dt ot RNA be f or ei nc or por a t i oni nt oapol ype pt i de b . Thec ompone nt soft het r a ns l a t i ona lma c hi ne r yc omet oge t he ra tr i bos ome s c . Tr a ns l a t i onbe gi nswi t ht hef or ma t i onofa ni ni t i a t i onc ompl e x d.Dur i nge l onga t i on,a mi noa c i dsar ea dde dt ot hegr o wi ngpol ype pt i dec ha i n e . Oneoft hr e es t opc odonss i gna l st het e r mi na t i onoft r ans l a t i on f . Tr a ns c r i pt i ona ndt r a ns l a t i onar ec oupl e di nba c t e r i a V. Mut a t i ons a . Ba s e pa i rs ubs t i t ut i onmut a t i onsr e s ul tf r om t her e pl a c e me ntofoneba s epa i rby a not he r b . Fr ame s hi f tmut a t i onsr e s ul tf r om t hei ns e r t i onorde l e t i onofba s epa i r s c . Somemut a t i onsi nvol vemobi l ege ne t i ce l e me nt s d.Mut a t i onsha veva r i ousc a us e s

1-6...