Bio 121 Lab notes PDF

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Bio 121 Lab notes
LAB 4,5,6,7...

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Bio Lab 4, 5, 6,7, and 8 Domain- Eukarya Phylum- Plantae and Animalia Lab 4- Plants #1- green algae, club mosses, mosses and Ferns. Notes  Eukaryotic  Multicellular  Photosynthetic  Terrestrial The evolutionary relationship between Green Algae and Plants…  Evidence that plants evolved from Charohycean green algae.  The two share characteristics not found in any other group of algae.  Both contain chlorophyll a and b  store sugar in the form of starch within their chloroplasts. ^^^^^^Coleochaete (green algae, Protist) - seen to be the most closely related ancestor to kingdom Plantae.  Fresh h20 algae that grows on the surface of submerged rocks aquatic plants.  2 growth forms- branched filament or flat discoid thallus  Oogamous sexual reproduction o = large non-motile egg that is fertilized by motile sperm.  Cell division  Phragmoplast Plants are characterized by the presence or absence of cell walls. All plants are united by… 1. An alternations of generations life cycle. 2. Gametangia and sporangia within multicellular walls. 3. Embryos nourished and protected by cell walls.

PHYLUM- Bryophyta- NON- vascular  Referred to as MOSSES  Small  Moist terrestrial enviros.  ^^Because they have few adaptations to survive draught. o And are dependent on h20 for fertilization  Some Mosses can survive in cool dry places and become dormant when moisture is not present. They grow very quick when is it moist.  Important ecologically- colonize Newley exposed soil where they contribute to organic soil development and prevent erosion.  Mosses are sensitive to atmospheric pollution and are used as indicators of pollution levels.  Remains of certain mosses are used as fuel in Europe and Asia= Peat mosses

 Sphagnum- horticulture- potting medium or to improve garden soil- because it is very absorptive. RO- Polytrichum  Largest species of moss  Boreal forests of northern Saskatchewan  Alternation of generations life cycle. (good description of page 65) o Dominant stage is Gametophyte. o Gametophytes- conspicuous, small, green, leafy plants which are photosynthetic and long-lived. o In contrast- sporophytes are inconspicuous, non-photosynthetic at maturity, and depend on gametophyte for nourishment.  It is Moss that carpets the forest floor.  Spores are released through when gusts of wind shake the capsule.  Stems are short and tightly packed with poorly developed leaves.  Unisexual- archegonia and antheridia are on separate gametophytes.  When Polytrichum is mature, Antheridia (male) and archegonia develop at the top of the leafy gametophytes. Structure The Sporophyte arises from the gametophyte.  Capsule- where meiosis occurs to produce haploid spores.  Calyptra- protective hairy cap for immature sporangium that is composed of old archegonial tissue. o It sheds when sporangium is mature.  Operculum- protects the entrance of the spore producing region until spore is mature.  Rhizoids- absorb h20 and anchor the plant.  Sterile hairs- retain water which prevent desiccation of the antheridia.  Neck and swollen base-archegonia has this which contains a single haploid, non-motile, egg cell (oogamy) PHYLUM-Lycopodiophyte (Club Mosses)- seedless vascular  Primitive living phylum of vascular plants  Inhabit the forest floors in temperate regions and grow as epiphytes on trees in tropical forests- a plant which grown on another plant.  Contain both heterosporous (spike mosses, quill Worts) and homosporous (lycopodium) RO- Lycopodium  Short plant that Forms part of the undergrowth in forested areas in north America  Alternations of generations life cycle o Sporophyte dominant generation  If a Spore lands in a suitable environment it will grow into a bisexual gametophyte= Homosporous. (Lycopodium is this obviously)  Homosporous produce spores of only 1 size that germinate into bisexual gametophytes. o It produces archegonia and an antheridium- produce egg and flagellate sperm.

o 1.Fertilization results in a 2.diploid zygote which develops into a 3.embryo which forms a 4.new sporophyte plant.  Plants that produce two types of spores (micro and mega spores) are called heterosporous. They spore are produced in separate sporangium. They germinate to produce separate male and female gametophytes.  Friend- Selginella StructureHas two types of stems…  1.Aerial (upright stem) which is clothed with small green leaves (microphylls) and bears a strobilus at its apex.  2.Rhizome (horizontal stem) functions in asexual reproduction by producing aerial stems which allows the plant to to spread across the forest floors. o Bears scale like leaves and roots which have vascular tissue in them.  Sporopylls- modified leaves that compose the cone o Each bear a single sporangium and the Sporopylls encloses and protects the sporangium. PHYLUM- Pteridophyta- Seed less Vascular  Dominant sporophytes- alternations of generations.  Both homosporous and heterosporous  Depend on h20 for fertilization  Moist habitats. Forest floors in temperate regions or as epiphytes in the tropics.  Some can live in dry enviros because they have megaphylls= vascular tissue in the form of extensively branched veins. RO- Polypodium Tropical forests in south and central America and B.C.  Big ferns (rabbits foot fern- resembles rabbits’ feet)  Grow in large strands- forming the undergrowth of boreal forests.  Asexual reproduction is possible by rhizomes (just like lycopodium)  Gametophytes are tiny, green, and photosynthetic. Non-dominant****  Friend- Salvinia  Homosporous ???? o Spores that land in a suitable environment will germinate to form green, heart shaped, bi-sexual gametophytes that produce an archegonia and antheridia. Which produce egg and flagellated sperm. Structure  Rhizomes- grow horizontally, assist in asexual reproduction, hairy, and bear lots of roots  Large leaves grow up from branching rhizomes and on the underside of the leaves are brown spots called sorus- composed of a cluster of sporangia where meiosis occurs to produce haploid spores. o The top of the sporangium opens and suddenly snaps back to hurl the spores into the air. o Sporangia have thick orange walls with yellow spores Lab 5- Plants #2 -Conifers and Angiosperms

Seed Plants- Gymnosperms and Angiosperms Phylum- Coniferophyte  Produce cones that include, pines, spruces, cedars, and junipers.  Most diverse gymnosperm phylum  Evergreen= don’t shed their leaves at the end of the growing season, woody shrubs or trees.  Can inhabit harsh, dry environments  Major component of the flora in temperate regions, including northern forests. o Boreal forest in Sask is dominated by several species of conifers, including jack pine, white and black spruce ect. can also be found in cypress hills.  Used for lumber and for paper products.  Coniferophyta contains some of the oldest and largest organisms in the world.  Heterosporous RO- Picea- vascular tissue- Spruce  Large conical tree in boreal forests in sask  At maturity the sporophyte can reach up to 40m in height. Because of VASCULAR TISSUE!!!!  Adaptations- Thick waxy cuticle to prevent water loss in a dry, terrestrial, enviro. And. o Well-developed root system which anchors the large sporophyte and to absorb the amount of water and minerals it needs.  Sexual Reproduction- bear separate male and female cones typically on the same plant.  Pollination- 1.wind transfers pollen grains from pollen cones to ovule cones. 2. Fertilization results in a diploid zygote and the 4.resulting embryo is nourished and protected within the seed. 5. When mature the wing seeds are released from the ovule cone and dispersed by the wind. The seed is resistant to desiccation. 6. When conditions are favourable the seed will germinate to form a new sporophyte plant.  Friends- juniper, ginkgo ect. Structure Tracheid’s- xylem cells- transport water to the great heights of the cell and its thick walls offer rigid support to the stem and form the bulk of the woody portion of the tree.  Reduced Needle-like leaves- (arising from the branches) – covered with a thick wax Cuticle (adaptation above)  Pollen cone (male)o Sporopylls- tightly packed modified leaves (like lycopodium) o ^they contain ^= two yellow elongated sacs called microsporangia (or pollen sacs) where Pollen is produced. o The pollen grains are small, light, and bear wings that allow them to be carried long distances by the wind. o Pollen produces sperm (non-motile) and protects it during pollination.  Ovule cone (female cone) o Ovuliferous scales= Flattened leaf-like structure o On the upper surface of each scale, close to the point where the scale attaches to the cone, there are two small whiteish ovules  Each ovule produces a female gametophyte within an enclosed protected sporangium.

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The tiny ovules will ripen into seeds after fertilization and bears a wing.

PHYLUM- ANTHOPHYTA- Flowering plants  or Angiosperms as their seeds are enclosed in fruits.  Very diverse  Flowers and fruits o Structures adapted for sexual reproduction and dispersal.  Co-evolution- floral diversity was closely intertwined with the evolution of a variety of pollinators. Ex: bees and plants  Stems, roots and leaves allow them to inhabit and dominate many environments  Range from lil plants to huge trees.  Humans have exploited the abundance of angiosperms throughout history – food, lumber, textiles, and medicines. Two main groups of Angiosperms …

Flowers Composed of 4 different types of highly modified leaves that are usually arranged in whorls and attach to the tip of a stem.  From the outside to the inside the leaves are called – (o)-sepals, petals, stamens, and carpals(in) General Flower Structure: Sepals- green and enclose and protect the other flower parts as part of a flower bun. Petals- brightly colours and serve to attract and guide the movement of pollinators. Male organ- Stamen- composed of a slender filament

Filament- where the Anther is held- which is a pollen producing organ. Each Anther is made up of 4 microsporangia- which produce pollen grains (in the male gametophyte). Which produce non-motile sperm. Female Organ- Carpel- flowers may have 1, few or many separate carpels. o In some flowers many carpels are formed together to form a Pistil o Carpel (or pistil) have three distinct parts:  Stigma- the tip- which receives pollen from an anther during pollination  The style- thin and stalk-like  Ovary-swollen base- which houses the ovules- within each ovule a female gametophyte (embryo sac) produces an egg. o The ovary in depth- (relates to Prairie Lily)-within the ovary Hollow structure with internal chambers called Locules. The number of Locules depends of the number of carpels fused.  Each Locule contains a pair of bonding structures called- ovules.  Funiculus- in ovules which attaches ovule to central tissue called -placenta.

RO- Lilium  Prairie Lily  North America- variety of habitats including grass lands, slough marines, undergrowth of forests, disturbed habitats like ditches.  Monocot  Sepals and petals are brightly coloured  Adaptation- Oil droplets on Lily pollen allow pollen to stick to its pollinator and the stigma of the recipient flower.  The Prairie lily produces a “reward” which is nectar at the base of its sepals.  Friends- Sunflower and wheat. Fruits- ripened or mature ovaries of flowers *function to enclose, and protect seeds and aid in their dispersal

Lab 6- Animals #1- Sponges, Cnidarians, Flatworms and Nematodes General noteso Most animals ingest their food in an internal cavity o The ability to move has led to the evolution of specialized structures to be able to survive. o 2 subkingdoms- Parazoa and Eumetazoao Both are MULTICELLULAR o Parazoa animalso Differentiated cells o NO true tissues or organs o Ex: Sponge o Eumetazoa animalso Distinct tissue layers o Muscle fibres or cells for locomotion o Some mechanisms for transmitting electrical impulses between cells for communication. Subkingdom- Parazoa-Phylum-Porifera (Sponges) o Symmetry- NA o Their bodies/skeleton are loose aggregations of spongin and hard spicules (Calcium carbonate) and Silica. o Few predators- because of their production and storage of noxious substances and the spicules and spongin are indigestible.  FILTER FEEDING>>> o Sessile- internal cavity celled spongocoel that contains a flagellated cell which draws h2o and organic material through the pores where they are trapped in a mucilaginous material and transported into the cell for digestion. o To secrete waste- large opening called the Osculum @ the top of the sponge. RO- Grantiao Found in low intertidal regions, hanging upside down. Or attached to submerged rocks o Colonial sponge o Composed of several tube-like individuals attached together o Obtain food by filter feeding o Hermaphroditic- it realises sperm into the seawater which swim to the eggs within other sponges for fertilization. The resulting zygotes grow into an embryo while still in the parent sponge. The embryo turns into a flagellated larva which emerges into the spongocoel and swims out of the osculum.

o Can also reproduce asexually by fragmentation. o Osculum-small mouth

o

Subkingdom Eumetazoa- true tissues and organs Phylum- Cnidariao Stinging-celled animals o Diploblastic- body consists of two tissue layers= o Outer layer Epidermis (from ectoderm) o Inner layer Gastrodermis (From endoderm) o Held together by a non-cellular layer the Mesoglea o Body plan: Diploblastic acoelomate o Radially symmetrical o Tentacles covered with cells called cnidoblasts which contain an organelle called Nematocysts (unique to Cnidarians) o Which are microscopic, venomous harpoons used to capture prey or for defense. o Tentacles push prey into mouth/anus (located @ base of tentacle) o The mouth/anus Is the opening to the gastrovascular cavity (digestive) o Cnidarians do not have muscle tissue, but muscle fibres. The contraction of these fibres is coordinated by the nerve net. o Closing the mouth/anus causes the animal to be Hydrostatic which means it stands using by water pressure and can then manipulate its tentacles. o Life cycles including- Medusa and Polyp o Polyp- usually sessile which have a body column, a crown of tentacles and attached to a surface by a basil disc. o Medusa- upside down, free swimming, o Sexual or asexual (budding)

RO- Hydra o Water serpent o Sloughs, streams, lakes o Radially symmetrical o Preys on aquatic organisms o Polyp body form (no medusa life cycle) o Hydras can shrink to small sizes rapidly by emptying the water in the gastrovascular cavity- for protection- hydrostatic skeleton- muscles contract^- or to inflate (uses flagella) o Ectoderm- contains cnidoblasts within thier nematocyst o and the inner layer Endoderm- which secrets enzymes into he gastrovascular cavity. Also causes Phagocytosis- the smaller food particles form food vacuoles. o Intercellular digestion- food vacuoles in the endoderm cells can have flagella which create currents in the gastrovascular cavity which aid in the distribution of food particles. o Only ASEXUAL- BUDDING

Phylum- Platyhelminthes (flatworms) o Have well developed tissue and organ systems- true muscle cells o Triploblastic acoelomate- mesoderm, ectoderm, and endoderm o Mesoderm- mixture of cell fluids that lie between the ectoderm and endoderm o Because they have a mesoderm they also developed an excretory system. o Complex gastrovascular cavity- highly branched and has a mouth/anus at the end of the pharynx(ejects out of body when in use then rejects after) o The branching is necessary for nutrients to diffuse all over the body. o Cephalization= a concentration of nerve tissues and sensory structures in the head region. (adaptation for protection)************** o Sexualo Or asexual by splitting and regeneration RO- Dugesia o Freshwater streams and ponds o Carnivore of small aquatic animals and a scavenger of organic matter

o ADAPTATION-Projections on the side of the head called – Auricles- sensitive to touch and chemical signals. o and two eyespots on the dorsal surface- sensitive to light o MOVEMENT- produced by small muscular waves and the action of many cilia o Fluid portion of mesoderm aids in the hydrostatic skeleton o ADAPTATION- the development of muscles, bilateral symmetry and cephalization (the concentration of sense organs, nervous control, etc., at the anterior end of the body, forming a head and brain, both during evolution and in the course of an embryo's development.) enabled more directed locomotion. o Hermaphroditic, cross- fertilize, and split-regen

Phylum- nematoda- Roundworms o Well-developed tissue and organ system

Bilateral symmetry Tubular gut which has a sperate mouth and anus Outer protective cover called- cuticle Triploblastic pseudocoelomate- endo, ecto, meso (endo is pseudocoelomate) Move by whip like motion- they contract their long muscles on opposite sides of their body against the pressure of the fluid within the pseudocoelomate to produce a thrashing motion. o The fluid in the pseudocoelum forms the hydroskeleton o o o o o

RO- turbatrix o Vinegar eelworm o Acidic envros- free living and are found in rotting fruit and veg where they eat bacteria and fungi. o They move in the whip like motion^ but the motion is more useful for stirring up organic material they live in to access food.

Anterior

Posterior

LAB 7- Animals #2, Annelids, Mollusks, and Arthropods Phylum Annelida (segmented worms) o Bilateral symmetry o Tubular digestive tract o Separate mouth/ anus o Triploblastic coelomate body plan o True coelom=fluid-filled body cavity, which houses the internal organs is surrounded by the mesoderm. o Segmented-ADAPTATION- body separated into many compartments o it allows the worm to effectively use contractions of mucuses in its body against the fluid within the coelom for powerful forwards locomotion. o The coelom acts as a hydrostatic skeleton.

cross section RO- Lumbricus o Live in moist soil during the day and come out at night to feed on organic detritus. o Firmness of body is due to the pressure of the coelomic fluid. o hermaphroditic

STRUCTURE/FUNCTION o Five hearts o Circulatory system to move O2, CO2, and nutrients through the body o Seminal vesicles store sperm and seminal Receptacles which receive sperm during mating- then use for fertilization when egg is laid o Clitellum- used for sexual reproduction which secretes a mucous that sticks worms together while they exchange sperm. Later this structure produces a cocoon which will house the fertilized eggs. o Setae- provide traction for movement. o Ventral blood vessel takes blood to all segments o Nerve cord- gives rise to small nerves in each segment that control contraction to many muscles like the ones of the digestive tract, so food can move through it.

Phylum- Mollusca o Freshwater enviros o Soft bodies o Consists of three Main parts o 1. Foot o 2. Visceral mass-contains internal organs o 3. Mantle-a fold tissue which secrets the shell

o o o o

Hard shells of calcium carbonate but some have no shell (SLUGS) Bilaterally symmetrical Triploblastic coelomate Tubular digestive tract

RO- Pomacea o Fresh h2o o “apple snails” o Omnivore o Sperate male and female sexes o ADAPTATION- gills and lungs for respiration if enviro may dry up. o Operculum covers the body when it retreats into its shell. o Radula- bears teeth for eating plants and scrapping food off rocks o Two pairs of tentacles o 1. Posterior= have eyes o 2. Anterior=responsive to touch o Friends- helix, clam, octopus, squid

Phylum Arthropodao Animals with jointed appendages o External skeleton called an exoskeleton- made of tough carbs called Chitin o The chitin exoskeleton protects the animal’s points of attachments for muscles o In order to grow, arthropods must shed their exoskeleton and secrete a new one= Molting o Jointed appendages facilitate locomotion o Triploblastic coelomate (ecto, endo, meso(and true body cavity in meso)) o Bilaterally symmetrical o Tubular digestive tract o Most Arthropods bodies can be divides into three r...