BIOL notes - Professor Craig Aumack PDF

Preview

Summary

Professor Craig Aumack...

Description

1.1 8/21/19 Applied Science: Research whose findings are used to help solve practical problems Empirical Science: Scientific approach that investigates the natural world through systematic observation and experimentation. Triple Bottom Line: Best course of action to benefit the three pillars of sustainability (environment, social, economic). Sustainable Development: Development that meets present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to do the same. Carrying Capacity: The population size a particular environment can support indefinitely. Ecological Footprint: The land needed to provide resources and assimilate the waste of a person or population. In 2012, determined that current “footprint” is 1.6 planet Earths. Translated that available resources are being used 1.6 times faster than they can be renewed. Anthropocentrism: Human centered approach to environment; only humans have intrinsic value and that all resources are here to meet our wants and demands. Wicked Problems: Challenges that come with multiple stakeholders and many different potential solutions. These problems are often very complicated and their solutions rarely come with a clear winner. Five factors in connection with “wicked problems” that ultimately determine societies success or failure (Jared Diamond): (1) Sudden climate change or catastrophe (2) Lack of adaptation to the local environment (3) Self-inflicted environmental damage (4) Hostile neighbors (5) Loss of friendly neighbors; long distance trad Social Traps: Decisions by individuals or groups that seem good at the time and produce shortterm benefits but that hurt society in the long run. -Tragedy of the commons (individual benefit) -Time delay traps (benefit the now) -Sliding reinforcer traps (benefits that decline over time)

1.2 8/26/19

Observational studies: Research that gathers data in a real world setting without manipulating any variable. Experimental studies: Research that gathers data in a controlled setting, intentionally manipulation one or more variables. Stratosphere: Where the ozone layer is located, absorbing and reflecting UV light. If there wasn't a border, UV light could damage cells and DNA. It is radioactive. Troposphere: Lowest to the ground, where the ozone layer depletion could potentially cause harmful UV rays to pass through and hurt humans. UVC: Highest energy UV light, would be extremely harmful to life but luckily it never reaches past the stratosphere. UVB: In between the two. Has a high incidence of cancer with prolonged exposure. The ozone layer absorbs or reflects 90% of this type. UVA: Least energetic form of UV light. 50% is absorbed by the ozone layer. This is the type that causes sunburns. Oxygen: O^2 Ozone: O^3 True Hypotheses must be testable. If it is impossible to test and determine, then it is not a hypothesis. They must also be falsifiable, meaning they are capable of being proven wrong. CFC’s: Chlorofluorocarbons. First synthetically made in the 1930’s, considered a wonder family of chemicals as they could last forever. Freon is an example of this, which won’t degrade for hundreds of years. They were not considered toxic except in extraordinarily high concentrations. In 1974, two chemists from Cal (Rowland & Molina) realized that the DuPont scientists had created a compound that was TOO stable. Remained in the atmosphere accumulating for 100+ years. As it rose, it would be subject to intense UV light and likely be torn apart Ozone layer breaks apart when it is hit UV and then reforms instantly, as a single oxygen molecule wants to bond back to O^2. Ozone hypothesis: CFC’s would break down the ozone and chlorine bond to oxygen, creating an undesirable effect for the ozone. As CFC’s went up throughout human history, the ozone went down. However, although these may appear to have a cause and effect relationship and the graphs coincide, that does not mean that it is proven to be true, it was just a correlation. Correlation does not mean causation exists. Inferences: Conclusion we draw based on observation. Scientific theory: A hypothesis has been tested rigorously and the majority of the results support

the same hypothesis. One step below fact. Independent Variable: The variable in an experiment that the researcher manipulates in order to see if it produces a significant effect. Dependent Variable: The variable in an experiment that is evaluated to see if it changes due to the conditions of the experiment. Adaptive Management: A plan that allows room for altering strategies as new information becomes available or as the situation itself changes.

1.3 8/28/19 Information literacy: the ability to find and evaluate the quality of information. Scholarly literature: information written by experts to educate other experts, not the average person. formal format, contains an abstract, written by experts/researchers, provides citations, typically edited by a professional organization. Primary Source: New and original information from research—usually rigorously reviewed by peers in the scientific community for design, data, and analysis Secondary source: interpretations of primary sources and lack of peer review. Tertiary sources: interpreting information from secondary sources, often over-simplifying, while providing additional commentary and stimulating debate over an issue. Sometimes designed to sway public opinion, receiving their information from secondary sources. Toxics: Chemicals that cause damage to living organisms through immediate or long term exposure. Toxins: specific kind of toxic substances, produced naturally by some organism. Synthetic toxics: artificially produced, regular exposure. Includes pesticides, industrial solvents, heavy metals, PCB’s, etc. Not as toxic as some of the natural toxins but we are generally exposed to them routinely. Natural toxics: Produced in nature Batrachotoxin: most potent non-peptide based poison known. Persistence: Ability of a chemical to remain in its original form and resist decay. Low persistence chemicals break down quickly, usually decayed with sunlight. High persistence chemicals take a long time to break down and have a potential environmental impact long after initial release. Solubility: ability of a substance to dissolve in a liquid or gas. Water soluble generally considered safer for humans, able to excrete in urine. Still potentially toxic in high doses. Fat soluble cross cell membranes inhumans and hard to eliminate from the body. They begin to be stored and accumulate in fatty tissue.

Bioaccumulation: The build of substances in the tissue of an organism over the course of its lifetime. Biomagnification: Higher on the food chain and able to consume the entire lifetime of toxins in their prey. Mercury Poisoning: Most prominent case occurred through 1950-1960s in Minamata, Japan. Many residents started suffering severe intoxication of the central nervous system that was termed “Minamata Disease.” Local chemical plant releasing mercury into local bay. Mercury levels accumulated in sediments and were regularly accumulating in smaller fish. Large predatory fish bioaccumulated heavy levels eating the smaller fish. Minamatawas primarily a fish based diet. Toxicologist: Scientist who studies the specific properties of potentially toxic substances. Epidemiologist: Scientist that studies the patterns, causes, and effects of health and disease conditions within a population. Additive effects: other chemicals may increase the effect of the toxic. Antagonistic effects: Other chemicals reduce or cancel the toxic effects. Synergistic effects: Chemicals increase the effects of the toxic, even beyond expectations. Dose Response Curve: graph showing the effects of a substance at different levels of exposure. Often trying to calculate threshold LD50. NOAEL (No observed adverse effect level): the highest dose where no adverse effect is seen on any test subject. LOAEL (Lowest observed adverse effect level): the lowest dose where an adverse effect was first seen in significant portion of the test population. LD50: 50% of the population will die.

Types of Toxic Substances: Poison: Causes direct damage upon exposure at a high enough dose. Ex: Pesticides, cleaning solutions, drain cleaner, pharmaceuticals, antifreeze Irritant: Causes localized damage to tissue such as skin or eye. Ex: Household cleaners, chlorine, fabric softener Sensitizer: Can cause an allergic reaction to develop. Ex: Formaldehyde, latex Carcinogen: Causes cancer by causing mutations in DNA. Ex: Components in tobacco smoke, paints, perchloroethylene(dry cleaning solvent)

Teratogen: Causes birth defects. Ex: alcohol, tobacco smoke, etc Endocrine disruptor: Interferes with the hormones of the body. Ex: BPA, pesticides, etc. 9/9/19 Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA): The primary federal law governing chemical safety was first passed in 1976. Laid out the criteria for which the EPA could test and ban certain chemicals. However, some 65,000 chemicals were grandfathered in. Of 20,000 new synthetic chemicals; ~200 have been tested with another 200 flagged for testing Lead was banned for use in water infrastructure in 1986 under the Safe Water Drinking Act (SWDA). Flint (like much of the country), had pipes already in place before the ban was enacted. Frank R. Lautenberg Chemical Safety for the 21st Century Act(reformed the TSCA). Shifted law into a more precautionary stance. Requires manufacturer show a chemical is safe prior to its availability on the market. BPA is only harmful is low dosages, because the brain can’t recognize that it is receiving a fake signal.

Critical Thinking: Hasty Generalization: Draws a broad conclusion from too little evidence. Red Herring: : Presents extraneous information that does not directly support the claim but that might confuse the reader/listener. Ad Hominem Attack: Attacks the person/group that is presenting the opposite view rather than addressing the evidence. Appeal to Authority: Does not present evidence directly but instead makes the case that an “expert” agrees with the position or claim. Appeal to Ignorance: A statement or implication that the issue is too complex and the reader/listener is not capable of understanding it. False Dichotomy: The argument sets up an either/ or choice that is not valid. Issues in environmental science are rarely black and white, so easy answers are usually not valid. 9/11/19

4.1 The Kerala Model Through the 1970s Kerala, a small coastal state in India, was/is known both for being very poor and crowded. Indian economist Amartya Sen worked with Indian government officials on system of state economics which did not focus on Gross Domestic Product but rather on Human Development Indices. Kerala’s culture gave it three distinct advantages in spreading education and healthcare. The Kerala Model succeeded in solving overpopulation, however economically and industrially did not change. Still a very poor region and the high rate of education has resulted in “brain drain,” with the low job market in Kerala forcing people to migrate to other parts of the world for employment Human Population has surged to extreme growth rates two times throughout history, the first being the Agricultural Revolution. The transition from hunter-gatherer societies allowed humans to produce more food, created a greater need for labor which made people produce more children, and also allowed people to live longer. The second time this has happened was during the Industrial Revolution. Dramatic improvements to sanitation and health care decreased death rates significantly, doubled life expectancy, and allowed other under-developed countries to prosper. Crude Death/Birth Rate: The number of births/deaths per 1000 individuals a year. Age Structure Diagrams: Project population growth, or decline, over time by analyzing a population’s size broken down by its age structure and sex ratios. Population Momentum: Populations that are bound to increase for another generation. Demographic Transition: Theoretical model describing expected drop in population growth as economic conditions improve. Demographic transition holds that, as a country’s economy changes from preindustrial to postindustrial, low birth and death rates replace high birth and death rates. Transitional Population: India’s pre-reproductive and reproductive cohorts are not as dramatic. Population rise bound to slow. There are noticeably more males than females Total Fertility Rate (TFR): Average number of children a woman has in the course of her lifetime. The ultimate goal is to achieve zero population growth (ZPG), when the number of people being born is equal to the number dying—replacement fertility rate. Reasons Why Birth Rate is High: (1) No contraceptives

(2) Pronatalist pressure (3) Low opportunity How to Ratify those Birth Rates: (1) Education (2) Economic stability (3) Health care Steps to solve Overpopulation: Population needs to go down Use less per person Find more resources

4.3 The World Health Organization (WHO) recognizes that environmental factors contribute significantly to disease, injury, and death worldwide. 1.) Biological hazards a.) Infections, bacteria, viruses, fungi, worms, etc. i.) Fungi: Non-bacterial group of ii.) Worms: All animals, but the term refers to a body shape more than any one classification of animals. b.) Vector-borne disease: infectious disease that can be spread from one host to another. i.) Viruses: infectious agents that only replicate inside a host. ii.) Bacteria: Large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Very common. iii.) Protozoa: Diverse group of unicellular organisms (amoeba) c.) Zoonotic diseases: disease spread to humans from infected animals. d.) Non-communicable diseases: illnesses that are not transmissible between people. 2.) Physical hazards a.) Natural disasters, extreme weather events, ultraviolet light, etc 3.) Chemical hazards Vector: an organism that does not cause disease itself but which spreads infection by conveying pathogens from one host to another. Environmental Factors affecting disease transmission: Urbanization Habitat fragmentation Climate Change (*) Human resistance

How to reduce disease: (1) Provide access to clean water (2) Improve sanitation and hygiene (3) Reduce vector exposure (4) Reduce air pollution (5) Education (6) Effective public policy

TEST 2 5.3 9/18/19 Law of Conservation of Matter: Matter is never created nor destroyed, but it does change form. Degradable Waste: Can be broken down by chemical and physical reactions. Biodegradable: Materials can be broken down by other organisms primarily through aerobic process. Non-degradable: materials are made of very stable molecules and so never break down, not in a human’s lifetime. Generally, because they are synthetic, nothing breaks them down as well.

Waste Statistics: 54% of all garbage is generated by agricultural waste 33% is generated by mining activities 13% is municipal waste. Degradable? Paper Yard Trimmings Food Recyclable? Metal Paper Glass Some plastic

Leachate: water that has percolated through a solid and leached out some of the constituents. Where does trash end up? Open Dumps are cheap and common in developing countries. These dumps are largely unregulated, contain a mix of hazardous and non-hazardous materials, and are often very hospitable for insects and rodents. Sanitary Landfills are more common in developed countries. Several protective layers of gravel, soil, and thick plastic to prevent leachate from seeping through. Benefits: ● Prevents leachate from delivering toxic substances to groundwater below the landfill. ● The trash is covered regularly with a layer of soil that reduces unpleasant odors, thus attracting fewer pests. Drawbacks: ● Excludes O2 and H2O, needed by aerobic bacteria for breakdown (takes decades to breakdown paper) ● Anaerobic bacterial breakdown; byproduct is CH4 Incinerators are special facilities designed to burn trash and capture the energy. Benefits: ● Handle thousands of pounds of trash per day (though still small portion) ● Reduces volume of incinerated trash by 80-90% ● Heat produced used to generate steam which, in turn, generates power. Drawbacks: ● Produces high amounts of toxic ash and fumes into the air (mainly the result of burning plastics).

● Ash and cinders must be disposed of in a separate designated landfill. ● Expensive to build. ● Trash fees higher at incinerator than at landfills. Microplastics: plastic pieces smaller than 1-5 mm associated with industrial processes, cosmetics, and clothing. Nurdles: Plastic resin pellets used to produce almost every plastic product, not screened out in normal sewage treatment. Ghost fishing: discarded fishing gear that catches fish unintentionally. Hazardous Waste: defined as either toxic, flammable, corrosive, explosive, or radioactive. e-Waste: relatively modern category of hazardous waste. Unwanted computers and other electronic devices (anything with a circuit board). Prevention: ● Creating structures that catch debris before it flows out to sea. ● Beach and reef cleanups. ● Bottle deposits and plastic bag charges ● Banning plastic bags, styrofoam, “Take back” laws: require manufacturers to take back some of their products after consumers are finished with them. Composting: allows waste to biologically decompose in the presence of oxygen and water, producing a soil-like mulch. Eco-industrial parks: industrial complexes in which industries are physically positioned near each other for “waste-to-feed” exchanges. Four R’s: Refuse, reduce, reuse, recycle

2.1 Biosphere 1 (The Earth): is materially closed but energetically open. This means that energy enters and leaves the system but biomass—plants and animals—do not.

Biomes: Ecosystems based on interactions between specific biotic and abiotic components. Three Broad Main: Marine, Freshwater, and Terrestrial. Ice: Technically a marine biome, one of the most unique because it is found exclusively in the north of the Arctic circle. Surprisingly rich in nutrients, though very few aquatic vascular plants adapted to survive in this biome. Produces mainly algae. Tundra: Covers expansive areas of the arctic, characterized by low precipitation and extremely cold temperatures. Vegetation is herbaceous (mosses, grasses, dwarf shrubs, lichens). Permafrost, a permanently frozen layer of soil, restricts the growth of plant roots.

Alpine: Found in mountain regions all over the world, usually at high altitudes (above 10,000 feet). There are around 200 different species of alpine plants, most of which have adapted to a low CO2 environment. Alpine animals have adapted to deal with two problems: cold and UV exposure. Tend to have larger lungs and more hemoglobin. Desert: Occur near 30 degrees north and south of the equator, taking up a fifth of the earth’s surface. Precipitation is low, while temperatures range from scorching at day and freezing at night. Plants have adapted for heat tolerance, water storage, and reduced leaf surface area. Animals are often burrowers and nocturnal, and many migratory insects. Boreal Forest (Taiga): Largest biome in the world, average temperature ranging from 20 degrees celsius in the summer to below zero in the winter. Plants are mainly mosses and coniferous trees. Smaller predators, large grazers, and migratory birds make up animal life. Temperate Forest: Found at midlatitudes, usually having a significant amount of precipitation during all seasons. Hot in the summer and cold in the winter. Plants are mainly broadleaf/shrubs and animals are squirrels, deer, etc. Grasslands: Precipitation is highly seasonal, with cold winters and hot and dry summers. Dominant plants such as grasses and forbs have adapted for droughts and fires. Native animals include large grazers and small burrowers. Chaparral: Occurs in mid-latitude coastal areas, precipitation is highly seasonal with rainy winters and dry summers. Dominated by shrubs, small trees, grasses, and herbs. Many plants adapted to drought and fire. Animals include amphibians, reptiles, and other animals adapted to dry conditions. Tropical Rainforest: Distribution is primarily equatorial and subequatorial regions with constan...