BIOL1902 - Midterm Review - Regions & Tundra PDF

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Summary

Summary of lectures leading up to the midterm....

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Natural History of Ontario: Midterm One Material -

Sedimentary rocks can form from animal remains or settling down from other elements. o When we see limestone, it means there were big bodies of salt water over the area. o This rock dissolves easily because it contains calcium.  Poison Ivy loves it. Rock type is affected by the physiographic region. - Sedimentary (formed primarily through the oceans. o These are young rocks. If we dug deeper, we would find the older rocks. o Basic in pH. o Usually underlies in the Lowlands (flat rocks). o These rocks will effervesce (give off bubbles) occurs when calcium carbonate comes in contact with hydrochloric acid. - Igneous & Metamorphic Rocks (old rocks = hard & acidic): Gneiss o Usually reside in the Highlands (Canadian Shield). o Rugged and largest physiographic region of Ontario.

Water is and creates habitats.

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Big bodies of water modify land temperatures and wind. It carries, sorts, and deposits material by size and weight. o This depends on how strong the speed of current is. o From fastest to the slowest medium:  Clay, Slit, Sand, Gravel, Boulder. Striations (scratches on rocks done by water).

Glaciers - Scoured the rocks and destroyed all life in Ontario. - Change the landscape because it pushes into the land as it moves. - As it melts, it creates big bodies of water on the land. - As it is moving, it gets build-up of material on the bottom of it. o

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Leaves these materials around as it moves across the land.

A small drop in average temperature can spawn glaciers.

HOW DID LIFE RETURN AFTER GLACIERS LEFT?

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With only rocks left, lichens (combination of fungi and algae) returned to colonize them. o Arboreal Lichens grow on trees. o Crustose Lichens (colonize on bare rocks in a ‘crust’ form). o These are a pioneer species (the first to grow on bare rocks). o Create a potential site for others to live in by initiating succession (change in living organisms in an area: going from limited to a rich environment over time). Mosses grow with lichen, and they can ALSO be colonizers.

When living things die, the moss and lichens add nutrients from decomposing bodies to the developing soil. Once the soil is established, plants come in. *** Water AND Plants break down rocks.

A limestone rock being broken down is much more beneficial for the soil. Igneous and metamorphic rocks don’t provide much because they are acidic and have no calcium. - Animal life was restored through Glacial Refugia. o Poplars and White Birch are often the first trees to colonize new soil.  These are the PIONEER TREE SPECIES! PROBLEM: - The White Birch and Poplar trees need sunlight. But there are too many of them, so they create shade and the younger generation cannot grow. o Shade-Tolerant plants become to grow under them.  These trees eventually outlive the pioneers.  Ex: Maples & spruces.  As conditions change, the forests change.  Pioneers come in & grow.  Create shade & cannot reproduce more.  Shade-Tolerant plants come in and take over the nutrients and area.  Pioneers begin to die off and become replaced by those. - If a forest remains relatively stable and replaces itself, it is known as a Climax Forest.

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The cycle ends when a forest fire wipes it clean. It will restart with pioneer species and end with Shade-Tolerant species.

Factors for Forests (Site Conditions) 

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Environmental Conditions o Temperature o Precipitation o Bedrock Type o Soil Type o Glacial deposits o Physiography o Drainage These reasons are why Ontario has a great variety of trees and forests.

Regions of Ontario THE TUNDRA - Most northern and coldest part of Ontario.

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Lacks a tree canopy, but it has miniature trees. o They are dwarf size because the regional conditions don’t allow them to grow.

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It is NOT just a tree-less habitat.

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It is special because the ground is frozen all year round (permafrost). Its land is very open so there is little to no cover from the wind. The ground is very flat, so there is poor drainage and glacial deposits form. Ontario has the southernmost subarctic tundra in the world. The northern limit of the Tundra is Hudson Bay. The southern boundary is the Tree line.

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Polar Bear Provincial Park. The average temperature is -6C (ground stays frozen all year round). o Frozen soil has very little decomposition.  There are little nutrients and no soil build up. This land is low and flat. If rivers get jammed by ice, the land would become flooded because there is no elevation. But this land is rising (Ontario is growing larger) due to Isostatic Rebound (land rising because glacier weight is gone).

INDICATORS: 

Has the coldest wind chill in North America. o Polar Bears o Clay & Silt (deposits are thick) o Tyrreal Sea (the Canadian Shield was a barrier because of the elevation so the water could not flood higher.) o No snakes or salamanders. o In Tundra Pools/Ponds/Lakes  Two Frogs (freeze-tolerant)  Boreal Chorus Frog  Wood Frog  Ducks – Northern Diving Ducks (Scaup)  Scoters (Black, White-winged Scoter, & White)  Snow Geese (pure white or grey with white head) color variations / blue geese  Arrive in late spring to nest.  Geese are NOT in the Tundra during winter (no food).  A transformation benefit geese: o Forest  Farmland o Prairies  Cornfield  Feed by sticking their head into soil and pulling up plants by their roots.  The number of geese modify the tundra zone (effects everything negatively). They add a ton of Nitrogen to the tundra zone (through poop). These change the plant ecology based on N-tolerance. o Brant River (fresh water - a lot of big rocks but no dams)  Otters (closely related to seals) o Winisk River (constantly brings in salt water with fresh water) – half and half. o The Height of Land (Arctic Watershed) o Hudson Bay salt water freezes because the salt is diluted with fresh water. Not good for ducks (so they don’t stay) or polar bears.  Sea Ducks: Eiders (Northern ducks) nest there!  Their feathers grow up to their bills.  Loons: only in the little belt of the Tundra Zone  Arctic Loon (not living here)  The Pacific Loon (fish-eating birds) o They have salt glands that remove salt from water by dribbling it out of their mouth. o

ALL AQUATIC BIRDS ARE ONLY PRESENT IN SUMMER.

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There are also Walruses (insulated by lots of fat. During the summer time, they are pink because they pump more blood to skin so they don’t overheat), Beluga Whales, Polar Bears , and Seals. o ***Cape Henrietta & Maria***  A colony of Atlantic Walrus is found here. Polar Bears are crossing further from Hudson Bay to find food. All along the coastline of Hudson Bay, there are Arctic Terns migrating. o Parasitic Jaeger’s will rob their fish & eat their babies. Woodland Caribou is the biggest herbivore in the Tundra (eats a lot of lichens). o Both genders have antlers (females usually fall off). o Arctic & Gray Wolves are predators.

PLANTS OF THE TUNDRA - Plants have to deal with permafrost. -

o They have a short growing season (less than 140 days). Salt-tolerant plants are Halophytic. They have fleshy leaves for storing water and protection. They also have salt glands which remove the salt. o Seaside Lungwort (aka Oyster Leaf & Blue Bells) o Goosegrass – food for geese: looks like a lawn.

Farther inland of the Tundra, there are beach ridges. The ridges are formed by past residing glacial water from the Tyrreal Sea & Isostatic Rebound. - Stranded Beach Ridges are important sites for animals such as the Arctic Fox. The fox digs dens in these ridges. - These ridges also provide nesting sites for shorebirds: Plovers & Sandpipers. o These birds nest, but don’t feed there. They feed on shore when the tide goes out; Mudflats provide feeding sites which consists of invertebrates. o Hudsonian Godwit *** As you go more inland, the land gets drier because of Isostatic Rebound. Lichen and Mosses dominant this land. - Sphagnum Moss o When the moss growth is faster than decomposition, as the layer gets thicker it creates its own form of “soil” called Peak Moss. - Reindeer Lichens o The primary food of caribou. - Saxifrages are a common group of lichens in the Tundra.

Characteristics of Tundra Plants Plants also need to be cold-hardy. (Some trees can tolerate -80 C… Windshield doesn’t affect plants) - Tamarack trees are hundreds of years old. Plants in the tundra are also small-sized. - Don’t require as much nutrients. o Dwarf Birch, Arctic Willow, & Labrador Willow all share Dwarfism.

Some plants have fixed heights (won’t grow no matter what) Genotype Dwarfism.  Ex: Dwarf Labrador Tea o Some plants will grow when brought to a beneficial environment: Phenotypic Dwarfism.  Ex: Dwarf Birch There are also creeping plants that have low and sprawling growth. - Crowberry is a subarctic plant that sprawls (so taller plants shelter them). Another feature is clump growth is beneficial because the outer part shelters the inside. - The dead outer part offers shelter for the rest of the plant. o White Spruce deploys this growth! Plants can also grow hairs to retain heat by creating a greenhouse effect. - Louseworts and Willows have hairs. Color of plants is usually darker (purple). - Helps absorb parts of the wavelength of light to keep warmth. Willow thickets develop in sheltered areas. Spruces reproduce vegetatively layering. Snowcovers benefit shorter plants because taller plants will die from the wind. o

Tundra Birds (only present during summer) of Hudson Bay Area - Ground nesting sparrow-like birds nest nowhere else in Ontario. Longspurs (long toenails) are an arctic bird.  Smith’s & Lapland Longspur o Snow Buntings  They broadcast their territory by singing in the air. When the tides go out in the Tundra, there are a lot of mudflats. - This is good for birds because they can nest moss hummocks. o Dunlin (long beak) o Least Sandpiper o Willow Ptarmigan (most northern grouse)  Males have reddish brown heads until winter (where they turn white for warmth).  They have completely feathered feet & toes. In thickets (insect gleaners), there are Yellow Warblers (not an indicator species of the tundra). - Blackpoll Warblers ARE an indicator species the Tundra. o

- Common & Hoary Redpoll (finches) eat insects and seeds. American Tree Sparrows & White Crowned Sparrow nest at the edge of the tree line (at the end of the Tundra zone). Mammals of the Tundra - The Meadow Voles (not IS) and Northern Bog Lemmings are found here. o o

These have characteristics consisting of plump bodies, short tails, tiny feet & ears. Meadow Voles hold the greatest population cycles in the world by mass reproduction within a short amount of time. Usually roam around the subnivean space.

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This greatly affects the numbers of their predators such as the Arctic Fox, Owls (Short-eared) & Northern Harriers (hawk) are two ground-nesting birds.  Snowy Owls greatly benefit from this because they surround their nest with food. If the older baby is limited with food, they will eat the younger baby.  Pure adult males are completely white. Younger males have some white spots and females have a lot of dark spots. - There are two types of jumping mice with long tails: o Meadow (in the Tundra) & Woodland (not in Tundra). o This mouse survives in the Tundra by true hibernation. - Groundhogs & Striped Skunks are also located here. FUNFACT: Winisk (got washed out) in cree means Groundhog. - Lemmings are also very common & hold a fallacy that they commit suicide to control their population. This is NOT true! God damn Walt Disney. There is a term for something that grows in only one place: Endemic. - The Lepage Wild Flax is a Hudson Bay endemic only found in the Tundra Zone.

The northern boundary is the Tundra. There are no canopy-forming trees. Their trees are dwarf. Has continuous permafrost. The Hudson Bay Lowland is very cold with an avg temp of -3C to -6C. There is a short growing season. Has discontinuous permafrost. Relatively low elevation (flat), primarily because of the sedimentary rock… This means the winds off Hudson Bay still have an effect. Because it is low, effects from glaciers still effect it: Land depression and clay & slit deposits (poor drainage). There is lots of water here! Cold + Wet = ideal conditions for moss & lichens. - Sphagnum Moss & Red Sphagnum does not like moist habitats. o Creates Peatlands which are dominant habitats in HBL. o When the Peat is > 45cm thick & wet, it is called Muskeg.  HBL has one of the largest expanses of continuous muskeg in the world. - Some trees will grow taller & form continuous forests in SOME areas. o There are two major types of peatlands.

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Bogs - receive water & nutrients ONLY by rainfalls and dominated by Sphagnum Moss.  Fens – receive nutrients from flowing groundwater such as streams. Often sedge-dominated. Feels like you’re walking on waterbeds. - HOW DO PEATLANDS FORM? o Often begin forming by Lake-Fill. o The outer-part of the “fill-in” is called the grounded part and is the oldest. o Sphagnum’s are not always the one to begin growth. Sedges colonize and grow out into the water. Their rhizomes (underwater roots) float near the surface and provide attachment as they grow. Sphagnum moss grows around these rhizomes and grow thicker and thicker. o In peatlands, the moss IS the soil! (nasty soil for other plants) The HBL is sitting on sedimentary rock so it means there is a lot of calcium. However Sphagnum does NOT like calcium. Therefore: - It changes the environment by making it acidic.

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Locks nutrients and makes it poor. Deprives oxygen (very little decomposition). The nutrients from the dead sphagnum don’t get released! Through time, the growth rate becomes thicker because the rate is so much higher than the decomposition rate. Sphagnum does not need water because it has a special structure in the leaf strand that holds water. This makes it able to hold water (dead cells become hollow to hold water). The mat grows thicker and spreads, which choke the water. o The lower portion of the moss mat dies & more sphagnum grows on top.

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When growth > decomposition = peat. o When you add peat moss to soil of a plant, it helps it hold water. o If someone dies in peat, their body is preserved for thousands of years (acidic, lack of oxygen, and cold). On the Muskegs (sphagnum mats – very acidic), things that like to grow on top of it are: - Reindeer lichens

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Heath plants (dominant group) have hairs on the undersides: o Laurels (sheep) o Cranberry o Bog Rosemary o Leatherleaf o Labrador Tea The leaves are kept during winter-time to conserve nutrients and the hairs help prevent desiccation. They are shaped to be small & rounded for better surface area. They are common because they have Mycorrhizal Associations (with the moss). There are also carnivorous plants (eat insects): - Pitcher Plants

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Bladderworts (underwater traps with suction sacks)

Adhesive traps (Sundews) Some plants have Special Features:

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Speckled Alders have Root Nodules full of bacteria and nitrogen. The soil in HBL provides low nutrients, so these plants have their own supply! - Stunted Black Spruce often spread by Layering vegetatively (a clone of one single tree). o This is not the same as Dwarfed. o They grow in semi-continuous fashions… They aren’t 100% continuous. In most habitats, species diversity increases. But for Muskegs, the bigger it is, the less diversity! - The youngest edge of a Sphagnum Lawn is the greatest diversity. o Most carnivorous plants grow here. o There are more nutrients available because sphagnum moss hasn’t had time to convert the environment. If water level rides, sphagnum moss can overtake a forest! Blackspruce trees aren’t always the winners. - This is called Paludification is a major way peatlands formed: o Changes the environment so the tree dies and falls down + gets covered. o There was a major warming period called the Hypsithermal that happened 5,000 - 7,000 years ago. This encouraged the growth of blackspruce trees & plants. As it got colder, the sphagnum moss is slowly conquering again. - Stringed Bogs or Ribbed Fens (character feature for the HBL) o These are perpendicular to the gentle slope.

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Shallow Ponds are important for animal breeding sites: o Toads can dig down below the frost line. o Freeze tolerant frogs (dominant group of herps) like the Spring Peepers. o Two types of sandpipers:  Greater Yellowlegs (also nest all throughout the boreal forest) so they are not an indicator for HBL.  Lesser Yellowlegs (ONLY nest in HBL) indicator for HBL. Stunted spruce trees make important nesting sites for birds: o Northern Shrikes (indicator for HBL during summer not winter). o White-crowned Sparrows (not indicator for HBL) o Palm Warblers (not indicator for HBL) are a peatland species that wag their tails.

- Rivers are VERY important habitats: o o

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Move, sort, and deposit material for drier substrates for plants. Create raised banks (drained & drier habitats) along their shores.  We start getting shoreline habitats that allow for greater diversity (trees growing onto of them).  Allows northern caliciphilic plants to grow on top of sedimentary limestone.  Alpine Bistort  False Asphodel  Butterwort (carnivorous plants)  Sparrow’s Egg Lady Slipper ((indicator)(hardy plant – cold or basic conditions)) grows on exposed rock on shore line. Shrubs form densely along the shoreline of rivers edge.  Ninebark (their flowers are popular pollinators)

The diversity of birds is increasing because the habitats are different from habitat within muskegs. The further south you go, the more habitable & warmer it is – therefore greater the diversity.

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Fox Sparrow is a northern finch.

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Back-backed Woodpecker (not indicator for HBL) is an indicator for northern forest.

Black Spruce is the dominant tree of the edge of the rivers.

Poplars are present if the soil is dry enough. The coniferous fringe (confined to river edges) offers habitat for many habitats. - Plants have adaptions for growth in shades (large leaves).

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Grey Jay (indicator for northern forest) – linked to spruce trees b/c of scatterfooding. Depend on spruce trees for food storage. They horde food and have an amazing hippocampus to remember where they hid it. They do not migrate. Food stays fresh because they wrap their food in saliva blanket before they hide it in spruce trees. Saliva blanket absorbs chemicals from the spruce tree to keep it fresh? Population of Gray Jays are declining because of global warming (affecting cold temperatures). Don’t fear humans. Spruce Grouse (indicator for northern forest) eats spruce needles.

Snowshoe Hare Coniferous trees also offer Spruce Cones for seeds as food. - White-winged Crossbills (indicator for northern/spruce) forest o They are nomadic and irruptive.  Depending on food shortage, they will unpredictably move from one location to another (eruption). When they find a reliable amount of food, they will reproduce accordingly. - Red Squirrels (dine on Midden (their pile of food))

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Great Gray Owl (indicator for northern/boreal species) Northern Hawk Owl Boreal Owl (most nocturnal than all owls) Northern Weasels: Marten, Fisher’s, & Wolverines (biggest land weasels) o There are no Wolverines down in our area. If anyone claims to have seen it, it was probably a Fisher going through their Blonde Phase.

Life along the Riverside

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The Boreal Snaketail is a clubtail dragonfly. As a nymph, it flows in rivers & streams. It emerges from t...