Biological anthro book noted PDF

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Biological Anthropology Book Notes

Chapter 1- What is biological anthropology -Humans are primates and share ancestry with living great apes -Humans and all other creatures are products of millions of years of evolution by natural selection -biological anthropology is particularly concerned with the evolutionairy transformation that occurred over the past 6 million years, as an ape-like primate began to walk on two legs and became something different: a hominin - humans and other animals are all part of the same process of adaptation I. Anthropology and its subfield -Anthropology- is the study of humankind in all its forms; has a cross-cultural and holistic nature attempt to understand different cultures (the total of learned traditions of a group of people) -Great debate genetics vs environment FRANKENSTEIN -biocultural anthropology- the study of the interaction between biology and culture which plays a role in human traits intelligence had to evolve before learned traditions -primate-member of the mammalian order Primates including prosimians, monkeys, apes and humans, defines by a suit of anatomical and behavioral traits -evolution-a change in the frequency of a gene or a train in a population over multiple generations -biological anthropology- the study of humans as biological organisms, considered in an evolutionary framework; sometimes called physical anthropologypaleoanthropology, skeletal bio, osteology, paleopathology, forensic anth., primatology, and human bio. -hominin- a member of the primate family Hominidae, distinguished by bipedal posture and in more recently evolved species a large brain -adaption-a trait that increases the reproductive suces of an organism, produced by natural selection in the context of a particular environment -anthropology- the study of humankind in a cross cultural context. Anthropology includes the subfields cultural, linguistic, biological anthropology, and archaeology -cultural anth.-study of human societies in a cross-cultural and focuses on how people lead their daily lives -ethology-study of human societies ethnography is this practice -linguistic anth.- study of the form, function, and social context of language -archaeology- study of how people used to live based on materials or artifacts material culture -historical archaeologist- study past civilizations that left a written record of exisitence II. The scope of Biological anthropology A. Paleoanthropology -the study of fossil record of ancestral humans and their primate kind

-the study of the meaning of human and nonhuman primate fossils proceeds from comparisons from extinct and living forms -evolutionairy history of species is complicated the “ladder of progress” notion in which all specieis evoloved from each other into more complex forms has been replaced by a family tree with many brances B. Skeletal Bio. And Human Osteology -osteology-study of the skeleton -anthropometrists-made detailed mesaurments of the human body in all forms -to understand the origins and patterns of human migration across the globe the relationship between genetics, human growth and stature, and geographic variation in human anatomy must be examined -skeletal biologist- also study skeleton but must understand the patterns and process of human growth, physiology, and development C. Paleopathology and Bioarchaeology -study of disease in ancient human populations and the study of human remains in an archaeological context -bioarch.- concerned with basic research into human origins -Forensic anthro.-study the identification of skeletal remains and of the means by which the individual died  historical and criminal investigtions D. Primatology -Jane Goodall and Dian Fossey -study the anatomy, physiology, behavior, and genetics of both living and extinct monkeys, apes, and prosimians  explains how evolution has modeled the human species E. Human Biology -human adaptation- learning how people adjust physiologically to the extremes of earths physical environment how children grow up in the high mountain ranges in the Andes -nutritional anth.-studying the interrelationship between diet, culture, and evolution; also hormones -study of human variation-study the way humans differ in their anatomy -biomedical anth.- study how human culturalal practices influence the spead of disease and affects of pollution and toxins in the environemtn affect human growth -molecular anth- genetic approach to human eveolutionary science  differences in genome b/w humans and closest relatives  DNA sequences III. The roots of Modern Biological Anthropology -1856- ancient human found in germnay -1859- Darwin published On the Origin of Species  ended the mono versus polygenism because he proves that species evolve from each other -physical anth- established as an academic discipline in the late 1800s -neo-Darwinian synthesis- synthesis of genetics, anatomy, ecology, and behavioral evolutionary theory emerged in biological sciences in the 1930s -study of human races -Goodman, Sariac, Wilson- molecular genetics Chapter 2: Origins of Evolutionary Thought

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for a long time starting in the 1920s with the Scope trial it was debated whether or not evolution could be taught in schools - evolution is an accepted theory that supports a wide variety of information I. What is science -science is a process not a result it involves deduction and observation; formulating a hypothesis; testing and experimentation; or the collection of evidence (data) that either supports or refutes the hypothesis. This describes the scientific method -deduction-a conclusion that follow logically from a set of observations -observation-the gathering of scientific information by watching a phenomenon -hypothesis-a preliminary explanation of a phenomenon. Hypothesis formation is the first step of the scientific methos -experimentation-the testing of a hypothesis -data-the scientific evidence produced by an experiment or by observation from which scientific conclusions -scientific method-standard scientific research procedure in which a hypothesis is stated, data are collected to test it, and the hypothesis is either supported or refuted -falsifiable-able to be shown to be false -science is an empirical process that relies on evidence and experimentation -science is self correcting -paradigm- an intellectual framework for understanding a given set of info  paradigm shift takes a great deal of conflicting evidence and debate b/w scietists before that paradigm is overturned and replaced by a new one II. The Early Thinkers -14th century BC Aristotle described the animal and plant life in the Medierranean region: he believed that each living form possessed an absolutely fixed essence that could not be altered (immutability of species) and that life was arranged in an orderly hierarchical ladder with humans at the very top -immutability-lack of change A. The Roots of Modern Science -idea of fixity was accepted in the middle ages mostly to abide church doctrine -renaissance-approach to science modernized; human anatomy; humanism -discorvery of new world helped develop scientific theory exotic plants and animal species -before 1800s scietists believed there was a single creation event James Ussher (1581-1656)- calculated date of earth using the bible (wrong) B. Linnaeus and the Natural Scheme of Life -17th/18th c. naturalists concerned with developing classification schemes for naing and organizing plants and animals -John Ray (1627-1705)-first naturalist to use the terms genus and speciesto classify animals and plants -Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778)- wrote Systema Naturae; built on Ray’s writing to create the most comprehensive classification of the plant world

complied at the time ; studied the diversity of animal life; he used physical characterisitcs to assign plants and animals to different classifications  linnean hierarchy still believed that species were fixed by god -taxonomy-the science of classifying and naming living things -binomial nomenclature- Linnean naming system for all organisms consisting of a genus and species label -Taxon-a group of oganisms assigned to a particular category III. The Road to the Darwinian Revolution -18th/19th c. European natural historians made their mark in explaining the nature of the diversity of flora and fauna on earth -Comte de Buffon-Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon (1707-17880 accepted the notion of biological change; observed that animals change in response to new environments (biogeography) -Georges Cuvier-(1769-1832)embraced concept of extinction and change but with a biblical twist theory known as catastrophism- in which cataclysmic disasters were believed to have wiped out earlier forms of life on earth  Noah’s flood Cuvier argued more advanced animals from other regions of the world moved in -Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire-(1772-1844) strong advocate of evolutionairy change; teamed with Lamarck -Jean-Baptiste Lamarck- (1744-1829)-proposed his theory of inheritance of acquired characteistics (lamarckianism)- argued that all organisms make adjustments to their environment during their lifetime that could be passed on to their offspring making those offspring better adapted to their environment concept of need and use he was wrong because evolution cannot occur during a lifespan A. The Uniformitarians: Hutton and Lyell -James Hutton (1726-1797)-saw clear evidence of past worlds in the upthrusting of the earth uniformitarianism-the geological processes that drive the natural world today are the same as those that prevailed in the past -Charles Lyell-(1797-1875) argued that slow gradual change was the way of the physical world and that if one looked in older and older rock sediments one would find increasingly primitive forms of life; worte principles of Geology IV. The Darwinian Revolution -Charles Darwin(1809-1882)- Grandfather Erasmus Darwin an eminent naturalist and philosopher; planned to study ar the ministry of the Church of England; invited on a voyage with Captain Robert Fitzroy A. The Galapagos -each island had its own varieties of animals -Each had own species of Finch -after his trip he began to develop his theory of evolution as he realized that the maybe a small number of creatures had reached the islands long ago then had diversified in response to the different island habitats -biogeography-the distribution of animals and plants on earth

-adaptive radiation- the diversification of one founding species into multiple species and niches -natural selection-differentials reproductive success over multiple generations B. Refining the Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection -Darwin studied nat. sel. by making parralells to articficial selection like when farmers breed their animals -Alfred Russel Wallace- poor farmer; came up with his own theory of evolution -Origin of the Species Observation1: all organisms have the potential for explosive population growth that would outstrip their food supple Observation 2: populations are roughly stable therefore there must be a struggle for existence Observation3: Nature is full of variation: some variations must be favored and others must be disfavored  natural selection -fitness-a biological measure of reproductive success -natural selection can be explained as differential reproductive success across multiple generations and among the individuals of a given population of animals or plants -for natural selection to work 3 preconditions must be met: 1. the trait in question must be inherited 2. the trait in question must show variation between individuals 3. the filter between the organism and its genetic makeup is the environment which must exert some pressure in order for natural selection to act -evolution is a change in population (a breeding group of organisms of the same kind) in the frequency of a trait or a gene from one generation to the next -mutation- an alteration in the DNA that may or may not alter the function of a cell if it occurs in a gamete it may be passed from one generation to the next V. Science and Creationism -small group of people have argued against the teaching of the principles of evolution instead for a biblical creationist view -creationist- a scientist who studies the origins of the known universe but who believes that the universe may have been created 14 billion years ago by a single supernatural force  relies on faith -creation science-a creationist attempt to refute the evidence of evolution -intelligent design- a creationists school of thought that proposed that natural selection cannot account for the diversity and complexity of form and function in nature Chapter 3: Genetics: Cells and Molecules I. The Study of Genetics -Wilhelm Johannsen 1857-1927- coined the term gene -in complex aninmals genetics can be approached from several diferent levels:

-cellular and molecular genetics-involves the study of genetics at the level of the basic building blocks of bodies (the dna molecule)- used to determine precise make up of our DNA -Classical and Mendelian Genetics- involves looking at pedigree (a diagram used in the study of human genetics that shows the transmission of a genetic trait over generation of a family) of realted individuals and tracking how various traits are passed from one generation to the next -populationgenetics-biological species are usually divided into populations composed of groups of individuals who associate more with one another than with memebers of another opulation. Different populations within species most always vary at the genetic level. BY examining the genetic variation within and between populations we can gain insight into the the evolutionairy history of those popualtions and of the species as a whole -phylogentics- concerned with determining evolutionairy relationships between species usually by constructing tree-like diagrams that visually indicate how closely or distantly species are related to one another -behavioral genetics- involves trying to understand how the behavior of anaimals including humans is influences by genetics. Controversial field -biological anth. Is concerned with understand human evolution and human bio. variability which arises from genetics and enviro. surroundings II. The Cell -cell is a microscopic organic entitry in which genetic material and other structures are separated from the surrounding environment by a semipermeable membrane -basic division of life on earth is between single celled and multicellular organisms: prokaryotes- include bacteria and blue green algae; are single celled organisms with no major compartments within the cell to separate genetic material Eukaryotes- include all other forms of life, have cellular anatomy that separates the genetic material from the rest of the cell in a structure known as the nucleus -nucleus-in eukaryotic cells, the part of the cell in which the genetic material is separated from the rest of the cell (cytoplasm) by a plasma membrane -outer boundary of a cell is defined by a plasma membrane which regulates the passage of material into and out of the cell and governs communication and coordinated activity between cells -cytoplasm-eukaryotic cells; the region within the cell membrane that surrounds the nucleus; it contains organelles which carry out the essential functions of the cell such as energy production, metabolism, and protein synthesis -somatic cells- cells of the body that are not gametes (sex cells) -stem cells-undifferentiated cells found in the developing embryo that can be induced to differentiate into a wide variety of cell types or tissues. Also found in adults although adult stem cells are not as totipotent (means they can differentiate into any of the somatic cell types found in the fetus or adult) as embryonic stem cells

-stem cell research important but conrtovetial; embryonic stem cells may be useful for diseases that are caused by the loss in functions of specific cell types example parkinsons disease A. Cell Anatomy (see page 34 for diagram) -in most eukarotic cells the most prominent structure in the cytoplasm in the nucleus which is bound by its own memebrane or enevelope which separates its contents from the rest of the cytoplasm -DNA-found in nucleus; double stranded molecule that carries genetic material; each strand composed of a linear sequence of nucleotides; the two strands are held together by hydrogen bonds that form between complementary bases primary function is to make protiens for the body and cellular respiration -proteins- complex molecules formed from chains of amino amino acids (polypeptide) or from a complex of polypeptides. They function as structural molecules, transport molecules, antibodies, enzymes, and hormones -protien synthesis- the assembly of protiens from amino acids that occurs at ribosomes in the cytoplasm and is based on information carried by mRNA -Ribonucleic acid (RNA)-single stranded; found in large quantities in the nucleus and cytoplasm; essential for carrying out protein synthesis; comes in three forms: messengerRNA, tranferRNA, ribsomalRNA -mitochondria-in cytoplasm where energy production for the cell takes place; contains its own DNA produces ATP; “powerhouse” -endoplasmic reticulum- cytoplasm; folder membrane; provides increased surface area in the cell for metabolic reactions: two types roughwhich contains ribosomes( composed of RNA; site for protein sysnthesis) and smooth III. DNA Structure and Function -DNA must be able to: replicate it slef so it can be passed from generation to generation, make protiens, and must coordinate the activity of protiens to produce bodies A. DNA Structure I: the Molecular Level -structure- double helix -nucleotide-the basic unit of DNA and RNA; consists of phosphate, sugar, and a nitrogen base (a molecule that includes one or two rings composed of carbon and nitrogen atoms ; in DNA: adenine, guanine, thymine, and cytosine; in RNA: uracil replaces thymine) -two classes of bases: Purines- (adenine and guanine) and Pyrimidines(cytosine and thymine) (see figure page 37) A-T; C-G in RNA instead of thymine, adenine and uracil pair up with a hydrogen bond B. DNA Function I: Replication -DNA replication: DNA molecu;e divides into two separate strands; two strands are separated when weak hydrogen bonds are broken; after separation each strand serves as a remplate strand for the assemply of

nucleotide by nucleotide of a new complementary strand of DNA, whe process is completed there are two copies of the mother dna molecule -enzyme-complex protein that is a catalyst for chemical processes in the body; mediates a chemical or biochemical reaction such as dna replication DNA polymerase “proofreads” C. DNA Function II: protein Synthesis -hemoglobin-a protein molecule in red blood cells, bind to oxygen and transport protein it throughout the body and other transport protiens facilitate the movement of molecules across cell membranes -hormones- regulate many bodily functions -protiens are complex molecules made up of small molecules known as ---amino acids-molecules that form the basic building bloacks of protein (see page 39); 20 different AA-> 9 essential AA that must be acquired by diet -polypeptide-chain of amino acids -genetic code-the system whereby the nucleotide triplets in DNA and RNA contain the information for synthesizing protiens from 21 AA -codon-a triplet of nucleotide bases in mRNA that specifies an amino acid or the initation or ermination of a polypeptide sequence most amino acids represented by more than one codon -gene- the part of the DNA molecule that contains the info for one protein -DNA info to make protein: two steps transcription and translation with aid of RNA molecules  mediated by enzymes -transcription occurs in the nucleus of cell; begins where DNA strand splits RNA molecule synthesized separates form DNA DNA strand reattach  mRNA carries info from nucleus to cytoplasm -translation (protein synthesis) occurs in the cytoplasm; mRNA binds to ribosomes and protein synthesis is initated; as each codon in the mRNA sequence is “read” a tRNA brings the correspondning AA to the ribosome mRNA is reay by the ribosome codon by codon. A second AA is brought to the ribosome by a tRNA and it is linked to the first AA to start forming the protein AA chain as each codon is read tRNA transport...