Biology Midterm Study Guide PDF

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Biology Midterm Study Guide: Slide Set 1 Notes: Endemic Species: Species that live in only one or a very small number of places - Galapagos island has many endemic species Cosmopolitan Species: Species that occur in most regions of the world - Ferret is a good example Galapagos Island Archipelago: - 24 of 29 species of land birds are endemic (92%) - 5 of 19 species of marine birds are endemic (26%) o This is because the marine birds are better adapted to leave the island and fly long distances. Biological Adaptation: An anatomical structure, physiological process or behavioral trait of an organism that increases its expected long-term reproductive success. Marine Iguana: a reptile that spends part of its time in the sea. - Can go to a meter and meter and half under water - Can spend 20 -30 mins underwater - Can feed of the algae in the ocean - Adaptations: o Laterally flattened to assist in swimming o Powerful limbs with strong claws to hold on to rocks o Blunt noses for gazing on seaweed o Salt glands under skin, between eyes and nostrils on each side of the head.  Ejects salt by sneezing  This is there to filter out the saltwater. Blue Footed Booby: Adapted for diving into water - Streamlined shape, large tails and nostrils that closed these are useful for diving - Large webbed feet help propel the bird through water at high speeds. - Specialized salt-secreting glands manage salt intake while at sea - Uropygial gland for waterproofing Greater Frigates Bird: Adapted for aerial life - High ration of wingspan/ weight - Tiny unwebbed feet - Vestigial uropygial gland (waterproofing is unnecessary) Biology: Scientific Study of life/ living things - Bio= Greek for life - Logos= Greek for knowledge Evolution: Living things change gradually from one form into another over the course of time - This is the unifying principle of biology

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Marine birds can fly much longer than land birds especially over water, this is due to evolution Museums of Natural History: Museums of biology Who coined the term biology? - It was Jean Baptiste Lamarck Who is the Father of Botany? - It is Theophrastus Aristotle: - Father of biology o One of the first to classify the relationships of living things. o First person to apply empirical techniques and rudimentary scientific method to study living things. o Examined the development of chicken eggs o Used inductive reasoning  Zoology: Animals  Botany: Plants  Empirical Method: Collection of data on which to base a scientific theory or derive a conclusion in science.  Vestigial: The organ is still there but it doesn’t do its function because the organism doesn’t need it anymore. The benefit of the organ becomes useless.  Inductive Reasoning: general conclusions are drawn from specific observations. o Can cause an inductive leap: where the assumption may not be correct every time.  Hymenopterans: Stingless bees, ants, Male honeybees, Wasp, bee, fire ant  Deductive reasoning: Specific observations are predicted from a general premise.

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Urus Maritimus : Polar Bear o Urus: Bear o Maritimus: Marine o They are adapted to:  Live in cold temps  Thick layer of white fur o Insulation

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o Camouflage  Small ears o Reduce Heat loss  Fur on soles of feet o Reduce heat loss  Thick layer of blubber (fat) o Insulation against cold o Store of energy  Moving across snow, ice and open water  Fur on soles of feet o Better Grip on ice  Large feet o Spreads body mass on ice and snow  Hunt for prey (seals)  Strong (powerful Legs) o Swimming and running for catching prey  Sharp claws and teeth o Catching and eating prey Adaptation: the evolutionary process (takes time) whereby a population becomes better suited to its habitat o Inherited characteristics of living organisms that enhance their chances of survival and reproduction in specific environments o Structural= anatomical or morphological

The scientific method consists of: 1. Producing a hypothesis 2. Design and performing controlled experiments or making observations that allow data relevant to the hypothesis to be collected 3. Analyzing the data in an objective way against the background of existing knowledge 4. Drawing conclusions that support or refute (reject) the hypothesis Killer Whale (Orcinus Orca) - Prefer cold waters but can survive in warm tropical waters - Diverse diet - Feed on almost every marine mammal species available throughout range - Some populations exhibit dietary specializations - Killer whales in resident populations in Alaska and BC feed exclusively on fish and squid - Transient killer whales in Alaska and BC only feed on mammals (harbor seals, Stellar’s Sea lions) - Therefore behavioral adaptations (ex: foraging strategies and social structures) used by different killer whale populations in response to their prey choice. o Carousel Feeding in Norway, Alaska and BC o Killer whales in the Argentina/ South America region use intentional beaching to capture sea lions

o Killer whales in the Antarctic region occasionally coordinate as a foraging strategy. - Echolocation: Sound waves from the whale’s song are reflected in an echo travel back to the whale. This helps them locate fish and prey What is Life? - Nonliving organism influence the living organisms - Abiotic factors: Non-living components - All living things have these seven common things: 1. Consists of one or more cells that contain DNA 2. Requires a constant input of Energy and raw materials 3. Conduct Metabolism 4. Grow/develop 5. Exhibit Homeostasis 6. Make short term responses to stimuli 7. Reproduce Slide Set One Separate Notes: Polar Bear Adaptations to survive in the arctic: - By having small ears polar bears reduce the surface area, reducing the heat that is lost. - Large feet of polar bears allow for better grip. - The legs are extremely powerful for catching their prey - Sharp teeth to tear the prey apart and holding it - They have relatively small eyes o This is to reduce glare in the eyes of the bear o They have poor vision o Bears aren’t good at picking up visual cues. - They predominantly use there smell to pick up prey - They have an inner eyelid o Nictiliating membrane  This acts like a second lens to protect them from the snow getting in their eye.  This enables them to look under water. - The camouflage they have is important to survival Adaptations take a long time to occur, yet this doesn’t mean the popN with that adaptation will survive the longest  Plants don’t have behavior they have responses Killer Whales: - Can exist in tropical waters but prefer cooler water such as the arctic and Antarctic - The diet of the animal depends on what they come across. o It can range from birds to squid o Certain popN prefer different things. - Some popN are residents, they stay there the whole time. 

o These popN don’t wonder and have the same food source to survive. - The popN that do wonder feeds on bigger things - The popN that do wonder need to have different behavior and food sources to survive o These techniques get passed down o These aspects are learned not genetics - The whales send out soundwaves and are looking for echos to target - When they locate a group of fish they will circle around the fish and make it smaller and smaller. They then stun the fish to eat them, o This is called carousel feeding/ fishing - The whales will intentionally beach themselves to get food o This is to catch the seal o Risky strategy o Only happens in certain coastlines o The slope has to be a gentle slope - Antarctic peninsula: An unusual foraging strategy has occasionally been used o Coordinated strategy - Individual popN of Killer whales often specialize in particular types of prey  Behavioral adaptation: the organism changes its behavior to survive better. This is to increase chances of getting food.  Apex predators: Top of the food chain  Killer whales have been found in tropical waters but only in the winter o There are other whales that live in the area and the killer whales can use those for food source o This group of whales will follow the humpback whale and tire out the female whales and attack her young ones o The killer whales will attack other whales. Slide Set 2 Notes: Characteristics of Life: 1. Living Organisms consists of one or more cells a. Cells are the basic structural and functional (physiological) units of all living organisms b. All cells contain DNA (hereditary material), cell membranes and ribosomes i. Ribosomes: Protein- producing factories of cells ii. Cell membrane: Barrier between the living cell and the outside environment - Hereditary information of all living things is coded in only two chemically related substances: DNA and RNA o The genetic code is simple but universal o Only four genetic letters in DNA  A-T, C-G  Uracil (U) replaces thymine (T) in RNA

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o Evolution has occurred not by the introduction of new letter but by the new combinations of the letters DNA= Blueprint of life All organisms share a common ancestor. o This can be called tree of life  Shows the Phylogenetic (evolution) relationships of organisms DNA is relatively stable in the cells o However, sequences of DNA molecules can change by mistakes in DNA replication/ effects of environmental agents  Mutations = biological evolution Life adapts through evolution o The physical, chemical and behavioral characteristics of life change o Populations (of living organisms) change over the course of many generations o Evolution results in traits that promote survival and reproductive success o Evolution is possible only because of the numerous variations that exist within each species. c. All cells have basically the same elemental composition i. 95% of the body mass of animals and plants are composed of only 4 elements 1. 65% Oxygen 2. 9% hydrogen 3. 18% carbon 4. 3% nitrogen a. These are all found in the human body b. They are also major building blocks of all living matter c. They are vital elements in all proteins ii. Other Vital elements: 1. Calcium and phosphorus: Components of skeletons and shells of animals 2. Sodium and potassium: Key regulators of water movement and electrical currents that occur across the surfaces of many cells. Macromolecules that all living organisms have: o Carbohydrates o Lipids o Proteins o Nucleic acids Hierarchy of life: Levels of biological organization 1. Atoms and elements 2. Molecules and macromolecules 3. Cells 4. Tissue 5. Organ 6. Organ systems

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7. Organism 8. Species 9. Population a. A localized group of individuals of the same species that can be interbreed and produce fertile of spring 10. Community a. All organisms (an assemblage of populations of different species) that live in in a particular area 11. Ecosystem a. All organisms in a specific area as well as the abiotic factors (Community +Physical environment) 12. Biosphere a. The sum of all ecosystems All forms of life can be divided based on their cellular structure: o Unicellular vs Multicellular  Algae  Yogurt Bacterium  Green Alga  Amoeba  Paramecium  They are relatively small  Most bacteria are o.2um in diameter and 2-8um in length  Protists are larger than bacteria (0.8-100um)  There are a few as large as 2 000um= 2mm  Size of organisms is limited in part because cells are subject to the surface area to volume ratio  As cells increase in size, there is a point where the plasma membrane/ cell wall cannot pass enough material across it to meet the needs of the increased cytoplasmic volume.  Unicellular organisms can undergo cell elongation  This is the extension of the cytoplasm  This way they can curb the surface are to volume ratio and still grow  The Sulphur proteo-bacterium: Thiomargariata namibiensis is larger than most bacteria at 750um in diameter  Micrasterias: Green Alga (protists) 100x160um  The exception to this is the green alga Caulerpa Taxifolia (“Killer” alga: seaweed) o Prokaryotes Vs Eukaryotes  Prokaryote  Pro= before  Karyon= kernel or nucleus  Lack a membrane enclosed nucleus  Eukaryotes

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 Eu= true or real  Have a membrane enclosed nucleus  DNA is organized in multiple chromosomes inside nucleus  Mitotic division occurs  Membrane bound organelles Life requires a constant input of energy and raw materials a. Autotrophs synthesize their own food (self-feeders) Use an external energy source to produce organic matter from inorganic raw materials Two types: i. Photo Autotrophs: Use light from sun (energy) and inorganic materials (H2O and CO2) 1. 6CO2 + 6H2O >> C6H12O6 + 6O2 ii. Chemoautotrophs: Use inorganic compounds (H gas; S, NH3, nitrites, Fe) as energy sources 1. See slides for examples 2. CO2 is still needed b. Heterotrophs require preformed organic molecules Use energy in organic matter obtained from other organisms i. Photoheterotrophs: use light from sun energy to generate ATP, but need to take in organic compounds from their environment 1. Ex: Bacteria- Chlofelxus, Halobacterium ii. Chemoheterotrophs: Must obtain organic compounds for both energy and as a carbon source 1. Ex: bacteria- Propionibacterium a. Has genes that allow it to break down skin cells and consume products 2. Most organisms are chemoheterotrophs Life conducts metabolism a. Metabole= Change All chemical reactions occurring within an organism (ex: photosynthesis; breakdown of food into energy) Organisms grow/ develop All organisms increase their size (by increasing cell size and/ or the number of cells). Many organism’s changeover time. Living organisms exhibit homeostasis a. They regulate their internal environment b. Homeostasis: Maintain an internal steady state (relatively constant); chemical and physical consistency in the face changes in surroundings. Ex: white tailed ptarmigan o Body heat generated by using energy from its food source o Thick insulating, coat of down feathers Life makes short term Responses to stimuli in the surroundings. Common stimuli: Heat, cold, light, sound, movement, touch and other organisms The ability to respond to stimuli is essential to all aspects of life.

- Protists have short- term response to certain stimuli: Amoeba Proteus (RO) Negative Thermotaxis (temperature) Moves away from low (10*C) and high (35*C) temperatures Phototaxis (light) Moves away from strong light and darkness Chaemotaxis (chemicals) Quickly moves away acetic acid

Positive Does not move at 25*C (optimum temperature) Moves to low light Is attracted to food

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Chemical signals (hormones): co-ordinates developmental, physiological and behavioral changes in an animal, in response to stimuli. - Sensitive plant: Mimosa Plant o If only one leaflet touches, electric signals travel throughout plant causing the entire leaf to fold. 7. Life reproduces itself - Most obvious and unique characteristic of life - Reproduction: production of new individual organism (offspring) from living organisms - Replication: The duplication of genetic material - Perpetuation is key to survival - All of the chemical and physical qualities of life, or those which characterize and define each life form are passed onto a new generation of cells and inviduals - Living organisms can reproduce by asexual reproduction and/or reproduction 4 types of asexual reproduction: Fission: Division of cells - Binary fission: One individual separates into 2 individuals of equal size o Ex: bacteria: Escherichia coli o Animal (Cnidarian)- sea anemone o Protists: Euglena, Paramecium and Micrasterias - Multiple Fission: One individual separates into several individuals of equal size o Ex: protists: Plasmodium (causative agent of malaria) Protist- Amoeba Proteus: two models of Asexual reproduction - Multiple fission occurs in favorable conditions o The multiple fission occurs in the boundaries of the cell walls Budding: New individual arises from an outgrowth of another - Ex: hydra- “daughter” individual is of a different size - Ex: Pedomicrobium (bacterium)- flagellum to help new individual to swim away to find food (etc.) - Outgrowth from the mother and the initial daughter cells is smaller than the mother Fragmentation and regeneration: Parent breaks off into pieces, each piece gives rise to a new individual (ex: echinoderm and Anabaena (blue-green alga)

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The common earthworm does not use fragmentation but its common relatives do such as the mudworm (lumbricus Variegatus) - Can also occur in multicellular organisms Parthenogenesis: Development of an individual from an unfertilized egg many insects and reptiles do this) - Ex: Desert- grassland whiptail lizards: they are only females and no males - Parthenogenesis in plants: asexual reproduction without fertilization o Ex: dandelion: Seeds production without pollination Sexual Reproduction: - Definition For plants and animals: Production of new individual by the joining of gametes to form a cell (zygote) by the process of fertilization Cross fertilization: Each individual is either male or female - Hermaphropdites: both female and male sex organisms ( common earth worms) - Fertilization can either be internal or external. o External would be frogs o Internal would be common earthworm, mammals such as the rhinoceros, and planaria - Parasitic trematodes (flatworms) relatives of planaria are hermaphrodites- mainly cross fertilization but some species can use self-fertilization but it’s rare - Definition for bacteria, protists and fungi: There are no separate sexes or individual with “male and “female” reproductive structures o They just have different mating types. (+/- or donor/recipient cells) o Production of new individuals by the exchange of genetic material from two individuals of different mating types o Conjugation: two organisms fuse along a common surface and exchange genetic material (gene transfer leads to genetic variation) there is no increase in the number of individuals  Bridge like connection between two cells or sometimes direct contact between two cells. Asexual Reproduction - Advantages: o Large number of offspring produced rapidly o Only one required - Disadvantage: o Little or no genetic variation Sexual Reproduction: - Advantages o Increase genetic variation meaning new genotypes o Enhances reproductive success in changing environments - Disadvantage o Locate a mate Viruses (Latin word virus= toxin or poison) - Sub microscopic particles (20-300nm) smaller than a bacterium

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Consist of genetic material (nucleic acids, DNA or RNA) contained within a protective protein coat called a capsid o They do not contain all 4 major biomolecules. - They do not have a cellular structure (=basis for life) - Unable to replicate outside of a living system o Viruses do not reproduce - They infect cells of living organisms - Infectious agents because they cause disease Viroids: Infectious Particle of plants - Do not have a cellular structure - Depend upon enzymes of plant host for replication - Lack lipids, carbs, proteins - Consist of a small RNA molecule (usually single-stranded circular RNA molecule of several 100 nucleotides in length) - Unlike viruses, RNA of viroids do not code for any proteins Prions: non living entities - More simple than viruses - Are proteins - Lack hereditary material ( no DNA or RNA) - Do not have a cellular structure - Prions induce abnornmal folding in normal protein molecules Viruses, viroids, prions are all considered as replicators: they are not capable of independent reproduction or metabolism. Slide set 2 Notes: - We can look at the tree of life to see how life has evolved - DNA will stay relatively stable in the environment - Species change over time and has to do with DNA and its mutations - Different allele frequencies cause changes - Reproductive Fitness: How many offspring an organism produces and how much offspring the offspring produces Aluminum: - Generally toxic - Plants and cells try to get rid of it - It is also a possible co-factor for chemical reactions - Proteins are biomolecules that have the most usage. They can do the most. Random Notes: - All brown algae are multicellular - Green algae can have both multi and unicellular - ...