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1 LET Reviewer Biology Majorship Biological Science 1 (Plant and Animal Biology 1) Systematics  classification of organisms and the evolutionary relationships among them Taxonomy  study of grouping and classification Taxon 

any named group of organisms that is sufficiently distinct to be assigned to a certain category

Levels of Classification Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species Binomial system of classification  by Carolus Linnaeus  use of Genus and Species o make up the scientific name o first letter of the genus is always capitalized, while the species name starts with a small letter. It should be in italics (underlining the genus and species means it is in italics) Example: Homo sapiens Mus musculus Common name  less precise  could refer to more than one organism Six kingdom scheme Achaebacteria  prokaryotic (without true nucleus)  extremophiles  no peptidoglycan in the cell wall  classification Group Thermophile Methanogen Halophile Acidophiles

Characteristic Heat loving Release methane as by product Salt loving Acid loving

Representative species Thermus aquaticus Methanobacterium Halobacterium Ferroplasma acidarmanus

Eubacteria  true bacteria  prokaryotic (without true nucleus)  with peptidoglycan in the cell wall  classification (based on shape) Group Coccus Bacillus Spiral

Shape Round Rod Twisted

Representative species Staphylococcus Streptobacilli Spirillum

2 Classification Diplococci Streptococci Tetrad Sarcinae Staphylococci

Characteristic/s Two cocci Chain of cocci Four (4) cocci; division in two (2) planes Eight (8) cocci, Cube like arrangement; division in three (3) planes Clusters of cocci

Protista  eukaryotic (with true nucleus)  with plant, animal and fungus like characteristics  unicellular eukaryotes Fungus like Protists Phylum Characteristics Representative species Water Molds Found in damp environments Phytophthora infestans Slime Molds lack chitin in their cell walls Physarum polycephalum Animal like Protists Phylum Mode of locomotion Sarcodina Pseudopodia Ciliata Cilia

Representative species Amoeba Paramecium

Mastigophora

Flagella

Trypanosoma

Sporozoa

None

Plasmodium

Plant like Protists Phylum Description Rhodophyta Red algae

Representative species Porphyra

Chlorophyta Phaeophyta Chrysophyta

Green algae Brown algae yellow-green algae

Caulerpa Sargassum Diatoms

Dinoflagellates

Some are bioluminescent

Gonyaulax

Fungi    

Economic importance Causes amoebiasis Plays a key role in the food chain of ponds Causes African sleeping sickness Causes malaria

Economic importance Source of nori, an edible seaweed Source of food Habitat for marine animals Produces the diatomaceous earth used for abrasives and filtering aids Causes red tides

eukaryotic (with true nucleus) heterotroph (consumer) some are saprophytes (consume decaying plants) and some are parasitic classification o zygomycetes (common molds)  resistant spherical spores  living in soil or on decaying plant or animal material  example-black bread mold (Rhizopus stolonifer) o basidiomycetes (club fungi)  fungi with gills or pores  examples are mushrooms and bracket fungi. o ascomycetes (sac fungi)  examples of sac fungi include morels, truffles, yeast o deuteromycetes (imperfect fungi)  have no sexual reproduction  examples Penicillum

Plantae  eukaryotic (with true nucleus)  autotroph (producer)  photosynthetic

Economic importance Causes potato blight Decomposition

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Plants

Non vascular (Bryophytes)

Moss (Bryophyta)

Liverwort (Hepatophyta)

Vascular

Hornwort (Anthocerophyta

Seedless

Fern allies

Seeded

Fern

Non Flowering

Flowering

Gymnosperm

Angiosperm

Monocot

Type of flowering plant Monocot

Dicot

Type of flower Floral parts in multiples of 3’s Floral parts in multiples of 4’s or 5’s

Number of cotyledon one seed leaf Two seed leaf

Arrangement of vascular bundles Scattered vascular bundles Vascular bundles in rings or circular arrangement

Type of leaf venation

Dicot

Type of root system

Parallel leaf veins

Diffused or fibrous

Netted leaf veins

Taproot system

Animalia  

eukaryotic (with true nucleus) heterotroph (consumer)

Dichotomous key  determines the classification of an organism Basic needs of plants  solid (although soil less farming called hydroponics can be done)  minerals Manganese, zinc, iron, boron, copper, nickel, molybdenum and chlorine Sulfur, phosphorus, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, potassium, calcium and Magnesium  air (CO2)  water  light Some benefits of plants  Food  Shelter  Source of oxygen for other organisms  Phytoremediation-help in the breakdown or reduce the concentration of pollutants in the environment

4 Basic needs of animals  food  water  air (O2) Some benefits of animals  food  biological regulation  medicinal use

Biological Science 1 (Plant and Animal Biology 2) Plants Root 

 

anchorage and absorption protection, support, reproduction, and storage (by specialized roots) root systems include taproot, fibrous, and adventitious o Taproot- composed of the primary secondary and tertiary roots o Fibrous- of an extensive mass of similarly sized roots o Adventitious-arise from the other parts of the plant like in the main branches, twigs and leaves

Stem      

main support system composed of the main stem and their branches can be with lenticels (serve as the breathing organ) can be with leaf scars and bundle scars with annual rings (can estimate the age of a tree) can be specialized (ex tuber, stolon)

Leaf   

serves in photosynthesis with stomata (entry of CO2 and exit of H2O vapor) can be specialized (ex tendrils, spines)

Flower    

reproductive structure male part is the stamen (pollen) female part is the carpel (ovary) develop to become the fruit

Transport  Xylem o conducts water from roots to leaves o composed of tracheids and xylem vessels 

Phloem o conducts sugar from leaves to other parts o composed of sieve tube members and companion cells

Nutrition  by photosynthesis light CO2 + H2O --------------> C6H12O6 + O2 Chlorophyll may be supplemented by carnivory (usually consumption of insects) like in the Venus fly trap and Pitcher plant Reproduction 

5    

pollination (transfer of pollen to the stigma) followed by fertilization (union of sperm and egg) has double fertilization may be sexual (using seeds) or asexual reproduction life span can be annual, biennial or perennial

Animals Nutrition  can holotrophic (feeding on solid organic material), saprotrophic (feeding on soluble organic compounds obtained from dead animals and plants) or parasitic (feeding on the organic substances present in the body of another living organism)  some structures for obtaining food are tentacles, claws, teeth, and pinchers  food is taken into the gut or alimentary canal  Food is subjected to chemical and physical digestion then absorbed Transport  can be water-filled canals (like in jellyfishes) or in circulatory system (like in vertebrates and certain invertebrates)  circulation can be open or closed (blood stays in the vessels) Gas exchange  can diffuse in the tracheal tubes (like in insects), skin (like coelenterates, flatworms and many annelids), gills (like in fishes), and lungs (like in most vertebrates) Excretion and Osmoregulation  kidney (like in vertebrates), malphigian tubules (like in insects) Locomotion  wings (in birds), tails and fins (in fishes and aquatic mammals like dolphin and whales) Reproduction  may be asexual (no gametes needed) Fission- divides into two or more equal-sized parts Budding- outgrowth develops on the parent animal that becomes a new individual  may be sexual (gametes needed) Behavioral Adaptations  Reflex actions- can happen unconsciously  Learning- adaptive change in behavior due to past experiences  habituation- subjected to repeated stimulation Principle of Unity in Diversity  All organisms are made up of cells  The continuity of life from generation to generation is explained by the presence of the genetic material.  The complimentarity between structure and function is true to all living forms  Evolutionary change is the key to the diversity of life.  Interaction with the environment Matter  Stability and homeostasis  Reproduction Complimentarity between Structure and Function  a relationship between the structure and function  example o cell provided with great number of mitochondria must be a very active cell in terms of energy consumption

Pure

Mixture

Inorganic and Organic Chemistry Matter 

Element

anything that has mass and occupies space

Compound

Homogenous

Heterogeneous

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Atom  

  Isotopes  

tiniest particles of an element have subatomic particles o proton-positive o neutron- neutral o electron-negative has atomic number (number of protons) has atomic mass (number of protons and neutrons)

same atomic number but of different mass number Example o Hydrogen-1, Hydrogen-2 and Hydrogen-3 o Carbon -12, Carbon-14

Ion 

 Element 

charged particles can be cations (positively charged) or anions( negatively charged)

composed of one type of atom that cannot be separated into simpler substances by chemical means.

Molecules  aggregate of at least two atoms in a definite arrangement held together by chemical bonds Compound  composed of atoms of two or more elements chemically combined in fixed proportions  can be decomposed by chemical means into simpler substances Mixture  consist of two or more substances wherein their composition varies  May be homogenous (one phase) or heterogenous (multiple phase)  Examples of homogenous mixture o vinegar  Examples of heterogenous mixture o Soil Periodic Table

7  horizontal rows called period (indicates the number of energy levels)  vertical column called group or family (indicates the number of valence electrons)  element in the periodic table can be metals, metalloids or non metals Covalent bond  sharing of valence electron Ionic bond  formed by oppositely charged ions  there is complete transfer of electron from one atom to another Hydrogen bond (in water)  bond that exist between an atom of a hydrogen in one water molecule and an atom of oxygen in another water molecule States of matter  Solid o molecules are closely bound to one another by molecular forces o holds its shape o volume of a solid is fixed by the shape of the solid.  Liquid o molecular forces are weaker than solid o takes the shape of its container o can flow  Gas o molecular forces are very weak. o take both the shape and the volume of the container o can flow Carbon  forms the backbone of biology for all life on Earth.  Complex molecules are made up of carbon bonded with other elements, especially oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen (carbon is able to bond with all of these because of its four valence electrons) Water       

contracts until it reaches 40 C then it expands until it is solid. Solid water is less dense that liquid water (thus, ice floats) Can be attracted to other water (cohesion). can be attracted to other materials (adhesion). High surface tension High boiling point Water has a high specific heat (amount of heat per unit mass required to raise the temperature by one degree Celsius)

Chemical reactions  Synthesis o A + B  AB  Decomposition o CD  C + D  Single displacement o EF + G  EG + F  Double displacement o IJ +Kl  IL +KJ

Biochemistry and Cell Biology Biomolecules  Carbohydrates o Immediate source of energy

8 o o o o

o

o



Proteins o Building blocks are amino acids  Amino acids may be essential (can not be synthesized by the body)  phenylalanine, valine, threonine, tryptophan, isoleucine, methionine, leucine, and lysine (Any Help) In Learning These Little Molecules Proves Truly Valuable  Amino acids may be non essential (can be synthesized by the body)  Alanine, Asparagine, Aspartate, Cysteine, Glutamate, Glutamine, Glycine, Proline, Serine, Tyrosine, Arginine, Histidine  Individuals living with phenylketonuria (PKU) must keep their intake of phenylalanine extremely low to prevent mental retardation and other metabolic complications. However, phenylalanine is the precursor for tyrosine synthesis. Without phenylalanine, tyrosine cannot be made and so tyrosine becomes essential in the diet of PKU patients.

o o



made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms simplest carbohydrate formula of CH2O Can be classified as monosaccharide, disaccharide and polysaccharide Examples of monosaccharide  Fructose-fruit sugar  Glucose  Galactose Examples of disaccharide  Maltose (glucose + glucose)-for making beer  Sucrose (glucose + fructose)-table sugar  Lactose (glucose + galactose)-milk sugar Examples of polysaccharide  Glycogen-storage carbohydrate of animals  Starch-storage carbohydrate of plants  Cellulose-for protection  Chitin- polysaccharide found in the outer skeleton of insects, crabs, shrimps, lobsters and cell wall of fungi

Lipids o o

Special proteins that hastens chemical reaction is called enzymes Protein deficiency leads to a disease called kwashiorkor (characterized by edema, irritability, anorexia, ulcerating dermatoses, and an enlarged liver)

Huge storage of energy Can be phospholipid, fats, waxes, oils, steroids  Fats-glycerol + 3 fatty acids  unsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature  unsaturated fats can be made saturated by adding hydrogen atoms (hydrogenation)  saturated fats are solid at room temperature  Consumption of large amount of saturated fats has been associated with atherosclerosis. (plaques are deposited on the walls of blood vessel reducing blood flow)  Waxes  fatty acid linked to alcohol  more hydrophobic and serve as natural coats  covers of fruits and leaves of plants that appear shiny  Some insects have waxy coats that prevent then from drying out.  Phospholipid  important in cellular membranes  Two fatty acids are linked to glycerol. A phosphate group is attached to the glycerol  Steroid  example is cholesterol  The backbone is not an alcohol but a four-ring hydrocarbon

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

Nucleic acids o Storage of information o Transmit parental traits to offspring o Building blocks are called nucleotide (sugar + nitrogenous base +phosphate group) o Can be DNA or RNA Criteria DNA RNA Pyrimidine base Cytosine (C) and thymine (T) Cytosine (C) and Uracil (U) Purine base Adenine (A) and guanine (G) Adenine (A) and guanine (G) Sugar Deoxyribose Ribose Phosphate group Present Present Number of strands 2 1 Location Nucleus, mitochondrion, chloroplast Nucleus, cytoplasm, ribosomes

Robert Hooke  discovered the cell Theodor Schwann (zoologist) and Matthias Jakob Schleiden (botanist)  stated that cells were the basic unit of life. Rudolf Virchow  stated tat cells come from pre-existing cells

Cell theory  Cells are the basic unit of life  All organisms are composed of cells. Every living thing is either single-celled or multi-celled.  all cells arise from pre-existing cells (Except for the origin of life itself). Prokaryote  No true nucleus  With nucleoid region Eukaryote  With true nucleus Structures Cell wall Plasma membrane organelles Sub-cellular Structure in cytoplasm

Cilia and flagella Centriole Nucleus

Prokaryotic cell Peptidoglycan with unique amino disaccharide Present Not membrane-bound Ribosomes ( 70S) Thylakoid

Does not have a 9 + 2 pattern of microtubule Absent Nucleoid (not enclosed by a

Eukaryotic Cell cellulose present Membrane-bound Ribosomes (80S) Endoplasmic reticulum Golgi apparatus Vacuole and vesicle Lysosome Peroxisomes Mitochondrion Chloroplast cytoskeleton With 9 + 2 pattern of microtubules 9 + 0 pattern of microtubule Nuclear envelope surrounding

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nucleolus

membrane) Innumerable enzymes Chromosome (loop of DNA) Absent

nucleoplasm, chromatin and nucleolus Concentrated area of chromatin, RNA and proteins

Cellular structures  Cell membrane o For protection o Explained by the fluid mosaic model  Phospholipid is bilayer interspersed with proteins  Fluid because component move throughout the membrane  mosaic because of integral proteins, peripheral proteins, glycoproteins, phospholipids, glycolipids, and in some cases cholesterol, lipoproteins.





Mitochondrion o Production of ATP o Enclosed by the inner membrane is a jelly-like matrix. o folds are called cristae o has its own DNA Chloroplast o pigment-containing o has of small flattened sacs called thylakoids  thylakoids are arranged in stacks called granum o has its own DNA



Ribosome o Make proteins o May be attached (in rough endoplasmic reticulum) or free



Endoplasmic Reticulum o May be Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)  Contain ribosomes  For protein synthesis  Flattened o May be Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)  No ribosomes  For lipid synthesis and detoxification  Tubular



Golgi Apparatus o modifies and packages materials



Vacuole o Surrounded by tonoplast o For storage and osmotic regulation



Lysosome o For intracellular digestion o Contain digestive enzymes o Suicide bag of the cell o May destroy cellular debris, pathogenic bacteria and fungi.



Microtubules o provides structural support and allows motion o has protein subunits called tubulin.

11 

Nucleus o Control center of the cell because of the presence of genetic material o Surrounded by the nuclear membrane



Flagellum/Cilia o Has 9+2 microtubular arrangement o For movement Centrioles o Has 9+0 microtubular arrangement o For cellular division





Nucleolus o Assembles rRNA

Plant and animal cell Animal Cell

Plant Cell

Mitochondria

Present

present

Cell wall Plastids

None No One or more small vacuoles (much smaller than plant cells).

Yes Yes One, large central vacuole taking up 90% of cell volume.

Vacuole Ribosomes Centrioles Lysosomes Plasma Membrane Cell wall Chloroplast Nucleus

Present

Present Only present in lower plant Always present forms. Lysosomes occur in cytoplasm. Lysosomes usually not evident. Present Present Absent Present Absent Present Present Present

Transport  Passive o Does not use ATP (the energy currency of the cell) o Movement is through the concentration gradient (from high concentration to low concentration) o Examples  Diffusion  movement of particles (atoms, ions or molecules) from a region in which they are in higher concentration to regions of lower concentration. It continues until the concentration of substances is uniform  Applications  Gas exchange for respiration  Gas exchange for photosynthesis  Facilitated diffusion  movement of spe...