BUS124 - Work and Employment PDF

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Chapter 3: The meaning of work  Economic necessity to work: 1. Working to live = earn money = basic needs satisfied as provides subsistence (food, housing, clothes etc).  But = most societies provide welfare system = to prevent ppl falling below basic lvl of subsistence (social welfare provision in form of unemployment benefit, housing allowances & free medical care = safety net = stop ppl becoming destitute). 2. Working to consume = ppl work to acquire consumer power (commodity consumption = designer clothes, tech, cars/ service consumption = eating out, gym use, holidaying) = greater choice about lifestyles = rise of consumption in 20th century (Ransome, 2005).  Work for extrinsic rewards (money) & intrinsic rewards (enjoyment, satisfaction, achievement). 3. Post-materialism = sig minority of ppl say they work for intrinsic reward (interesting/meaningful work = emphasising q.of.life) = materialistic values in advanced capitalist societies poss waning?  ‘Downshifting’ = ppl giving up high-flying careers & large salaries for less work-focussed, lessmaterialist way of living = increasing their quality of life.  Commitment to employment:  Meaning of Working survey MOW (1987) = 8 countries = ‘lottery question’ = asking ppts what they’d do about work if they got large sum of money & wouldn’t have to work rest of lifetime.  Cross-country variation = highest % to stop working = (Britain 31%, Germany 30%)/ highest commitment to existing employment (Japan 27%, Yugoslavia 34%)/ continue employment but under diff conditions (Britain 66%, USA 49%, & Belgium 47%).  Overall = ppl generally have commitment to employment (although not necessarily to current job) = & this is affected by national setting & age, occupation, indiv diffs & life experiences.  Moral necessity to work: ‘Work Ethic’  Work is ‘good’ in itself (virtuous, dignified & worthy activity for ppl to engage in).  Moral dimension to work = ‘work ethic’ = dev of work ethic in UK = Anthony (1977), drawing on Weber (1930) = traces it from roots of Protestantism in 17th Century = defined work as religious calling (common across religions) through either Lutheran belief (state of grace achieved through endeavour), or Calvinist doctrine (work part of lifestyle demonstrating indivs salvation).  Protestant work ethic became foundation for ideology of work associated w/ industrialisation & capitalism.

 4 key themes of work ethic = help disentangle notion of moral commitment to work from econ: 1. Work as an obligation (emphasising duty) = all should work to best of ability & thereby contribute to society = importance of doing utmost to seek paid employment, rather than remaining ‘idle’ = desire to not be perceived as ‘lazy’/ & be ‘good provider’ for one’s family. Yankelovich (1973) = 80% US adults linked importance of being breadwinner to masculinity = work even when lvls of pay are low.  Alternatively = could be argued that growth of unemployment in Western capitalist societies = means perception that work is way to becoming ‘breadwinner’ is being eroded.  But when work is in short supply = (scarcity) value placed on it rises = explaining why unemployed continue searching for work when econ conditions are poor.  Strong work ethic = might motivate some to hunt for work, but have detrimental effect on their ability to cope if unable to find suitable job.  Weak work ethic = may help some ppl accept being unemployed, but inhibit their motivation to gain employment.

2. Work as central life activity (emphasising commitment) = stresses paid work is most important part of life, coming before all non-work activities. MOW survey = ppts judged work as second only to family (but 27% placed working as most important among 5 key life roles).  Effect of age = work centrality tends to increase w/ age = get promoted/ more responsibility in organisation older they get, & as social life’s ‘slow down’.  Effect of nationality = work centrality varies according to national diffs = MOW survey = Japanese most work-centred/ British least work-centred.  Effect of gender = men typically have higher work centrality than women, but doesn’t necessarily mean that women are innately less interested in work = rather reflects diff roles of men & women = domestic obligations (cooking, cleaning, childcare) = mainly undertaken by women = requires them to be less work-centred = Hakim (1991) = failure to recognise how female labour force is composed of 2 groups: full-time work or homemaker role. For men = choice of being homemaker isn’t widely accepted in society = moral obligation to be work-centred more imposed on men/ general expectation by employers = a man will want full-time jobs, whereas a woman may settle for part-time work. 3. Work as conscientious endeavour (emphasising effort) = importance of doing a job diligently.  Contemporary expression of this = ‘customer care’ = making customers feel they’re being individually looked after = employees must manage owns emotions to elicit good feelings in customer’s minds.  Theme implies activity = physical or mental = stress on virtue of practical rather than knowledgeor emotion-based activity = supported gender divisions in work = increasingly defined customercontact jobs as emotion based & so more suited to women/ physical labour more suited to men.  Theme implies work has some purpose = Moorhouse (1987) = ppl are as productively active in leisure pursuits as they are in their work.  Also = high proportion of highly productive activity is unpaid (domestic work like gardening, or activities like voluntary work, or writing poetry). 4. Work as disciplined compliance (emphasising obedience) = components 4 capitalist production:  ‘Management prerogative’ = right of managers to direct workforce as they deem fit, based on their ‘expertise’. Fox (1966) = ‘unitary nature of employment r’ship’ = absence of any major conflict of interest & management as sole legit authority = received attention in 1980s w/ emergence of Human Resource Management (HRM) = emphasised common goals of employees & managers in organisations.  Obedience to time structures = disciplined compliance w/ time structures imposed by management = traditional Monday to Friday 9-5 working hours structured working day & whole of working lives = these time patterns changing in contemporary society = but most ppl still have structure imposed by time routines of their paid work.  Demise (death) of work ethic? 1. A shift towards a post-industrialist society (Bell’s thesis) = explanation stresses impact of econ devs, arguing work ethic is declining cozza structural changes in society = which mean we have moved from an era of industrialisation to a ‘post-industrial’ age.  Argument contends while work ethic was an appropriate basis to build industries = no longer has relevance in a post-industrial society (shift from mass production to niche production).  Bell (1973/6) = argued advanced industrial econs undergoing shift to become post-industrial societies = occurring through changes in social structure (incl transformation in econ base from manufacturing to services) = more ppl involved in delivery of services, as service demand & thus consumption increases. No longer moral necessity to work, as post-industrial society is shaped by technological advances, increased efficiency & greater theoretical knowledge = so cultural realm will have diminishing influence compared w/ econ realm.

 Critics of Bell (e.g. Webster, 1995) = argue his whole notion of post-industrial society is mistaken as creates false dichotomy between manufacturing & services, as the 2 are interdependent. Services sector is helping sustain manufacturing sector through ‘producer services’ like banking, insurance, marketing & distribution (Browning, 1987). 2. A shift towards a leisure society (Gorz’ thesis) = Gorz argues work ethic has ceased to have relevance coz of the emergence of increased leisure time, which is ‘liberating’ ppl from work.  Tech change = labour-saving work processes & creation of post-industrial age in which leisure & productive capacity outside work are increasingly important. Gorz = projects in future ppl = no more than 10 years of full-time work during their life.  Everyone would be guaranteed a minimum income in exchange for a right to work = this min income stimulates demand for goods & services, & purpose of life is self-fulfilment.  What does ‘leisure’ exactly mean? Range of activities from housework to volunteering ppl don’t get paid for, yet fills up their time = described as leisure? as involve (unpaid) effort & obligations.  Location of the work ethic = Veal = work ethic cultural phenomenon = not dislocated easily.  Theories of a leisure society fail to stand up against empirical evidence = many ppl in work are working longer & more intensely = false to suggest work ethic is under threat coz of ppl having more leisure time & shifting balance of their lives away from work & towards leisure activities.  Conclusion from Bell & Gorz = traditional work ethic must be abandoned as it’s dysfunctional in contemporary society = not suited to changing patterns of employment which emphasise service sector & force redefinition of roles of work & leisure.  Not the demise of work ethic = but instead = realignment of components of work ethic to match contemporary econ circumstances.  Work ethic & the psychological contract:  ‘Psychological contract’ (Heery & Noon, 2001) = belief of each of parties involved in the employment r’ship (employers & employees) about what the indiv offers & what org offers. Indiv employee might offer loyalty to org, & in return expects security of employment from org.  Martin, Staines & Pate (1998) = 2 contrasting views exist about effect on employees: 1. Pessimistic view = competitive market pressures have led to changes in structure & processes of orgs (delayering, lean production, flexibility, team working), & obsessive focus on the customer = leading to: work intensification, reduced job satisfaction, neglect of employee welfare & satisfaction, fewer career opportunities, & less training & dev.  Consequently = employees feel let down by employers as their expectations are no longer being met = psychological contract been broken. 2. Optimistic view = despite competitive pressures = ‘the traditional psychological contract built around job security & a career is still alive & surprisingly well’ (Guest et al. 1996).  There’s: greater employability, more demand by employees for training & dev, greater functional flexibility among employees, & more mobility between org’s.  Consequently = psychological contract is intact in some org’s & being ‘redrafted’ in others to accommodate new competitive conditions.  Both these views might be valid, but Herriot (1998) = argues ‘diff indivs will have diff perceptions of their psychological contract, there’ll be no universal notion of what the ‘deal’ is in any 1 org’ =  Diversity in any workforce regarding their values & orientations to work.  Poss idea that idea of ‘psychological contract’ is a misconception, so poss same can be said about ‘work ethic’.  Poss to argue a supposed ‘demise in work ethic’ is w/o foundation as it’s based on false assumption that a work ethic was generally held by ppl in the first place = there can be no overall demise, if there wasn’t any general acceptance of a work ethic.

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Diversity argument = suggests there are, & always have been, numerous orientations to work & the notion of a monolithic work ethic misrepresents this diversity = rejects view general shifts occurred. Moorhouse = emphasis on diversity = stresses importance of gender, class & ethnicity upon work values.

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Doherty, M. (2009) When the working day is through: the end of work as identity? Article seeks to present counter-case to ‘end of work thesis’ advocated by writers like Beck et al. Argues = work remains a sig locus of personal identity & the depiction by these writers of endemic insecurity in the workplace is inaccurate & lacks empirical basis. Draws upon case study data to illustrate how, across a range of workplaces, work remains an important source of identity, meaning & social affiliation.

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Concludes from case study evidence from public & private sectors (4 large unionised orgs – incl People’s Bank & Darbstore, & 58 interviews w/ employees, & union + company representatives): “that work does still fulfil for ppl important personal & social needs & that the workplace remains an important locus of social relations” (p.47).  Evidence for reality of work continuing to play important role in social identity.  For most ppl = work is place to socialise, & complex social systems dev within workplace which often spill over into leisure time.  Whole communities may also be socially linked through workplace, whr there’s a single major local employee (e.g. a manufacturing plant, hospital or large retail store).  Org’s = often seeking to establish & reinforce their own corporate culture which encourages identity w/ org through social interaction.  Data doesn’t show any sig diff in terms of importance of work to these respondents that corresponds w/ a particular workplace or group of employees. Given the v. diff nature of workforces & organizations here = this is surprising.  Beck (2002) argues in our ‘individualized’ society contemporary social relations are subject to high risk & face high levels of uncertainty.  However = this research suggests work does still fulfil for ppl = important personal & social needs / & workplace remains an important locus of social relations. Many of the arguments from ‘end of work prophets’ seem to rest on implications of a ‘destandardization of labour’ (Beck, 1992: 139). Best summed up by Sennett’s phrase ‘no long-term’ & the view that work has become short-term, contract-based & episodic. Evidence presented here = strongly supports those that question this view (Auer, 2005; Doogan, 2005; Green, 2006).  What provoked most discontent among all groups of employees = feeling they weren’t kept adequately informed about issues affecting working lives, & had insufficient say or voice at work.  Arguably = this lack of voice contributed sig to uncertainty that was ‘manufactured’.  Criticism of Doogan’s concept might be = the very factors suggested as contributing to ‘manufactured uncertainty’ (marketization of public services, increased exposure of employees to direct market forces) aren’t all that diff from those suggested by the ‘end of work Prophets’.  But = distinction lies in view of consequences of these issues, & in poss responses of employees to them.  For ‘end of work prophets’ = rise of consumption society & decline in importance of work = implications for wider social arrangements incl: ‘social classes, familial forms, gender status, marriage, [and] parenthood’ (Beck, 1992: 87). Evidence here suggests need for more careful empirical testing of such claims.  Logical to speculate changes in contemporary world of work (e.g. more temporal flexibility, or more variegated remuneration structures) = will throw up new & complex work-based concerns in respect of which employees may seek collective representation.

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Chapter 6: Work routines

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Assess how changes occurring in employment & organisational dynamics affected the nature of work tasks & skill levels in labour force. Within that context = look at deskilling & upskilling theses. Some scholars suggest there’s been a process of deskilling and degrading of jobs, whilst others claim the opposite & emphasise upskilling & job enrichment. To understand these debates = need to understand Taylorism & Fordism (particular importance = radically transformed organisation of work in 20th century).

 Taylorism:  Taylor published his work on scientific management in 1911 = reflects his obsession w/ efficiency. (engineer & believed there’s an optimum way of performing any task, & managers need to discover this one best way through scientific testing).  'Scientific testing (Taylor) = involve breaking tasks into their smallest components & systematically analysing each step. Taylorist scientific management = based on detailed calculations of timing, speed & use of space to attain most efficient & productive arrangements (Wood 1993).  Accordingly = every instance of work & each body movement of workers = calculated & planned to achieve greatest time efficiency. Once optimum way of performing task is discovered = management would devise a division of labour through which right person = allocated to right job.  So, Taylorist scientific management = highly planned & standardised organisation of labour process (Foster 1988). Managerial ideology on which Taylorism is based on = 4 components: 1. Division of labour = manual work separated from mental work. Managers who remove any discretion from workers = able to control method & pace of work = important skill implications. 2. Planning = managers plan each activity to ensure they conform to business objectives = employees become one of many production factors that are controlled for greater efficiency, productivity & profitability. Recruitment/selection = strategically vital for successful planning. 3. Surveillance = employees cannot be trusted to do their job diligently = have to be closely supervised/monitored = requires hierarchies of authority & division of management. 4. Performance–related pay = ppl essentially instrumental (money = most powerful motivator).  Payment may be linked to productivity/ or piece–rate payment systems could be used.  However = Taylorism wasn’t completely uncontested = rival theory at time (from the human relations school) = emphasised importance of social factors & challenged Taylor’s rationaleconomic assumptions. Nevertheless = Taylorist principles have made a crucial impact on job designs & division of labour = still implemented in many contemporary organisations.  E.g. earliest example of application of Taylorist principles = Fordist assembly line.  Fordism:  Henry Ford = adopted Taylorist management principles in his car company in Detroit at turn of the 20th century. Ford Motor Company = established in 1903, Detroit = introduction of assembly line & Taylorist scientific management = company’s rapid expansion, distinguishing it from other car makers. First assembly line introduced in Michigan plant,1913 = company website describes assembly line as new technique which “allowed indiv workers to stay in one place & perform same task repeatedly on multiple vehicles that passed by them”. Moving assembly line = Ford’s annual production figures boomed & by 1919 Ford Motor Company = huge family business.  Assembly line production = associated w/ Henry Ford’s name = he used Taylorist principles to organise mass production. Fordism is distinguishable from Taylorism in that it is a form of work production designed for efficient mass production = for mass consumption.  Dev of mass markets = demand for rapidly produced standardised products. Ford devised assembly line to meet vast demand. Mass production, mass consumption, & technological

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advances = ingredients of success of Fordism. Some scholars = argue rigidity & standardisation in Ford’s plants is overstated & there was more flexibility & less standardisation. But, overall = work regime brought in by Fordism = closely monitored, machine paced & short cycled. 90% of Ford employees = blue collar workers, spending working hours at assembly line subject to rigid standardisation & control. Narrations of workers at Ford’s Trafford Park plant in Manchester in 1920s = extent of strict control at shop floor: “You could not speak, you could not turn around, you could not even go to the toilet. It was ridiculous. Every minute was accounted for.” (quoted in McIntosh 2006: 174) After over 40 years = conditions in shop floor weren’t much diff when Beynon conducted his research in late 1960s, Halewood assembly plant, UK. Workers frequently mentioned inhuman character of working in assembly line & how they were being treated as ‘machines’. Many of the company workers felt strong contempt for this system which considered them as ‘robots’ in flesh: “They ...