Cases in Comparative Politics Iran Presentation Notes PDF

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Detailed case study of Iran's modern political history; in-class presentation notes ...

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1979 → Iranian Revolution ○ Secular Iranian monarchy fell to uprising inspired by religious leader Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini ■ Sought to create a theocracy → religious elite dominate regime ■ Law → Quran ○ Iran → source of inspiration for Islamic movements Iran → extremely atypical and unrepresentative of politics in the Middle East ○ Not an Arab country ○ Major ethnicity = Persian ○ Common language is not Arabic, but Farsi ○ Do not identify with other Middle East countries or identities → feelings have only intensified proceeding the Arab Spring conflict Difference between Ethnicity and National Identity ○ Compounded by religion ○ Early years post revolution → activism and conflict, but international impact of revolution was tempered because Iran practices Shiism (sect of Islam → Prophet should be a descendent of Muhammad, minority sect of Islam) ■ Many reject Iran’s harboring of Shiism → avowing a mistaken, if not heretical, form of faith ■ Iran → inspires modern debates on relationship between politics and Islam ● Are the 2 compatible? ○ Complexities → shape Iran’s role in international system ■ Moved towards developing own nuclear capacities → worries that Iran is a growing regional threat 1990s → reformists sought to liberalize political, economic, and social institutions ○ Culminated to 1997 election → President Mohammad Khatami ■ Expansion of civil society ■ “Dialogue of civilizations” in a place of international conflict ○ Religious conservatives beat reformers → significantly limited Khatami’s powers ○ 2005 Election → conservative Mahmoud Ahmadinejad → serious blow to reformers ■ New era of conservatism at home and confrontation abroad ○ 2009 → widespread for reformist candidates in 2009 election ■ Election was rigged to ensure a second term for Ahmadinejad → caused deeper divisions and rifts in political climate and future of country ○ 2013 → reformer Hassan Rouhani won ■ Promised to advance social reforms and improve relations with the West ● Also found himself challenging conservative institutions including Supreme Leader Ali Khameni

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Causing disappointment amongst people due to limited social reforms ○ Can Iran truly reform and become a more liberal, even democratic regime? Major Geographic and Democratic Features ○ Iran → maintains a solid and important position in Middle East, but is also an outlier ○ Shares borders with Afghanistan, Pakistan, and other Eastern European states that were once part of the USSR ○ Size of Alaska ○ Population of 80 million (larger than UK) ■ Ranks top 20 in size and population ○ Median age = 30 → relatively young country ■ Canada median age = 42 ● Large part of country does not know life before 1979 and has seen only economic stagflation under existing regime ● State must deal with influx of young people seeking higher education, employment, and housing ○ Gov’t has trouble trying to subsidize this ■ Youth took to streets to protest Ahmadinejad’s 2nd term and supported 2013 and 2017 elections → Rouhani ○ Population: ■ 60% ethnically Persian ■ 20% Azeri (Turkic speaking people situated in northwest near Armenia and Azerbaijan) ■ 20% → distributed between Kurds, Arabs, and Baluchis ● Some ethnic groups are Sunni rather than Shia ○ Sporadic ethnic conflicts, though much religious tension has subsided → exacerbated by conflicts in Iraq ○ Fourth largest oil reserves in the world ○ Largest reserves of natural gas ■ Resources = blessing and curse ● Oil → imperial attention at the start of the 1900s → helped jumpstart modernization ○ External intervention, domestic corruption, eventually revolution ● Has also helped keep current regime in power ● Oil derived wealth → economic stagnation in other parts of economy ○ Iran Nuclear Deal ■ Rapid increase in oil exports and foreign direct investment ■ Uncertain whether this will produce economic growth and lower unemployment

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Historical Development of the State ○ Persian Legacy and Islamic Empire ■ Traced back to 2nd millenium BCE ■ People migrated from Central Asia → became the Persians ● Country → known as Persia until 1935 ■ First millennium BCE → extend influence throughout region → formation of Achaemenid/ Persian Empire ● Emperors Cyrus, Darius, and Xerxes → grew empire stretched from modern-day India to much of Middle East ● Became enemy of Greek city states ● Famed for wealth, technical sophistication, and relative political + religious tolerance ■ Empire was destroyed by Alexander the Great in 334 BCE ● Country still developed under series of royal dynasties ● Kings and shahs ruled until 500s AD ■ 600s → arrival of Islam ● Introduced by Arabs ● Death of Prophet Muhammad in 632 → successors spread faith through religious military conflicts ■ Umayyad Dynasty (661-770 AD) ● Persia → Islamic world → differences between Arab and Persian worlds formed ○ Arabic = written language of state and religion, Farsi = spoken language of the people ■ Population shifts to Zoroastrianism ● Native monotheistic faith to Islam ● Persia was a part of several Islamic dynasties until the 1000s ● Conquered and dominated by Mongols from 1200s - 1400s ○ Persia fell → economic state and depopulation ● New Persian Empire after death of last Mongol Emperor ○ Dynastic Rule and the Adoption of Shiism ■ 1500s - early 1900s → rise and competition of 2 major Islamic Dynasties ● Safavids (1502 - 1736) ○ Country adopted Shiism as primary state religion ○ Way to differentiate between Ottoman Empire rivals → Sunni ○ Shiism ■ Leader of Islamic community → entrusted by God to family and bloodline of the Prophet Muhammad ■ Imams = true leaders of the faith ● Descendents have been repeatedly deprived of power by other Muslim leaders

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Last of imams → “Mahdi” (“guided one”) → identity is concealed by God → expected to return at the end of time/ judgement to restore justice ● Resembles Christianity ■ Emphasizes martyrdom → died at hands of Sunni ● Ex: Shia Hussein → grandson of Muhammad → failed a coup against Umayyad caliphate in 680 ● Army was extremely outnumbered → sacrificed himself for a noble cause → cornerstone belief of Shia ○ Ashura → commemorates Hussein’s death ■ Modern day political and religious struggles for Shia are compared to Hussein’s martyrdom ○ Another comparison between Christianity and Shiism → Ali returns at end of time to restore justice ■ Has to some degree made worldly politics secondary to faith ○ Cultivated religious leaders (ulema) → higher clergy → ayatollahs ■ Differs from decentralized Sunni Islam ■ Clergy → central institutions in contemporary Iranian religion and politics ● Ayotollahs → position themselves higher than all clerics → form own “fatwahs” → religious rulings independent of political parties ● Qajars (1794 - 1925) ■ Iran faced pressure of other expanding nations ● Russia → pushed Iran north ● UK → conquered India and attempted to control Afghanistan ■ Mid 1800s → Iran → how can the state confront superior Western economic and military prowess? How can Iran modernize and preserve sovereignty? Failed Reforms and the Erosion of Sovereignty ■ Last years of Qajar Dynasty → monarchy implemented halfhearted reforms ● Inspired by west to help modernize a weak state ■ Experimented with western economic and political legislations as it surrendered power to the Russians and UK

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Public animosity grew → gov’t weakness and idea that monarchy was selling itself to western powers 1906 → Constitutional Revolution ● Religious leaders and intellectuals of the merchant class → protested limitations of Qajar monarchy powers ● Resulted in elected assembly → first constitution and legislative body → “Majlis” ○ Signifies first attempt at republicanism and democracy ○ Similar to attitudes behind American Revolution ● Revolution → lacked clear ideology or consensus other than removal of the monarchy ○ Became a conflict of secularists vs. ayatollahs ● Monarchy → abolished constitution with Russian support ○ Conflict → allowed UK and Russia to divide the country into “formal spheres of influence” in 1907 → eliminated Persian sovereignty World War I ● Iran became entangled in conflict → Russian, British, British, German, and Ottoman troops supported various Persian factions fighting for power ○ Quarter of population was killed ● Collapse of Russian and Ottoman empires → UK became dominant foreign power and occupied much of Iran ○ Maljis → opposed British Imperialism ○ Rejected 1919 Agreement → UK would’ve secured control over Iran’s state and economy (including oil reserves) ○ Modern Iranian history → tightly interwoven with British Imperialism → never formally became part of British Empire, but animosity towards British still persisted Reza Khan ● Born to poor family, rose quickly in military officer ranks ● 1921 → marched to Tehran with intention of a coup de tat → turned on allied Maljis ● UK did not directly plan coup, but widely supported it ○ “Pleased to see a military ‘strongman’ establish control of the country, which could make their influence over Iran that much easier” (515) ○ Most Iranians → saw coup as an Imperialist plot → sentiment lasts today ● Many Persians → saw US as supporter of Iranian Independence ○ Diplomats and missionaries → backed Iranian

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independence and republicanism ○ View of US as an ally would change Consolidation of Power under the Pahlavi Dynasty ■ Reza Khan → renamed himself Reza Shah Pehlavi ● Dictator ● Consolidated power and centralized military → quell rebellions and limit Soviet and UK interference ■ 1923 → last shah of Qajar Dynasty → appointed Pehlavi to PM and went to exile ■ 1925 → Majlis deposed Qajar Dynasty → appointed Pehlavi to shah ● Clergy saw secular republic gov’t as a threat to Islam → pushed for conservative rule ● Pehlavi ruled country like a monarchy until 1979 ○ Few constraints on power → pursued course for Westernization and state building ■ Reformed bureaucracy, primary + secondary + university education system, transportation infrastructure, promoted monopolies → foster domestic and export economic growth, abolished aristocracy (aside from himself) ■ Increased rights for women (education) ■ Sought to root out traditional customs which held back women emancipation ● Forbade hijab in public ■ Exerted greater control over oil ○ Complemented political and government centralization with building a national identity → single people whose glory will continue thousands of years of history and dominance ● Efforts were a broad attack on Shiism and Islamic religious and educational institutions ■ 1935 → country name change from “Persia” to “Iran” ■ Modernization came at expense of democratization and practice of religious beliefs ● Institutions (press and Majlis) were curtailed ● Religious and political rivals were jailed, exiled, or killed ■ Regime → lacked any substantial ideology beyond nationalism and Shah’s grip on power ■ World War II ● Established modern political institutions and international independence at the cost of civic repression ● Drew Iran into international conflict again

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1941 → Iran was amicable with Germany ○ Russia and UK invaded Iran → prevent German access to oil reserves ● Reza Shah Pehlavi abdicated → imposed Mohammad Reza Pehlavi as new shah ■ Cold War ● US, UK, and Soviets try to consolidate power over Iran’s oil reserves ● Weakening Iranian state and regime The Nationalist Challenge under Mosaddeq and the US Response ■ New monarchy → unable to thwart republican and religious activity ■ Maljis and Ulema → promoted removal of Western influence ● Supported nationalization of oil → at the time under British and Iranian ownership ■ Nationalization → advocated by new PM Mohammad Mosaddeq → National Front party (republican → wanted to reduce and eliminate monarch power) ■ 1951 → shah conceded to nationalization → British anger and withdrawal of infrastructure support → halted British oil production ● Mosaddeq relied on Marxist Turkish Party and other supporters → reduce power of the monarchy ○ Wanted national sovereignty and modernization ■ Nationalization of oil angered British and secularism and republicanism campaigns angered Ulema ○ Alliance with MTP → US fears communist takeover → USSR supported pro Soviet gov’t in north ■ Operation Ajax ● Joint covert operation by Shah, US, and UK to overthrow Mosaddeq → victory ● Most of Ulema supported coup → feared Mosaddeq would impose secularism ● Domestic factors ○ Mosaddeq’s call for national sovereignty in face of Western imperialism and opposition to the Shah → first steps towards Iranian Revolution ● Shah consolidated powers → balanced goals for sovereignty with alliance with the US ● UK gradually withdrew presence ● US became essential to country economy, military, education, culture, and civil life ○ Shah was not fond of democracy → repressed

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oppositional parties and centralized military ■ Secret Police → SAVAK ○ Mitigated powers of PM and Maljis Authoritarianism and Modernization during the White Revolution ■ 1963 → White Revolution ● Goals → trickle down modernization and marginalization of the Ulema ● Modernization policies → land reform, privatization of state-run industries, literacy campaign, and enfranchisement of women ○ Strongly opposed by religious leaders ■ Ruhollah Khomeni ● Opposed to land reform and women enfranchisement ● Ayatollah based out of holy city of Qom ● Became symbol of opposition to Shah ● Rose to Grand Ayatollah ○ Power → intimidated Shah → Shah expelled him from country → Khomeni settled in Iraq and France and continued to criticize regime ○ Vision of Iran governed by Islam ● 1953 failed democratization → supporters flocked to Khomeni ■ Shah ruled for 15 years with little to no opposition ● Factors of democracy vanished → one-person state with centralized SAVAK military enforcement ● Modernization grew due to state policy and oil revenue ($20 billion a year by 1970s) ● Built huge military to enforce a “great civilization” → international recognition → brought foreign investors and fostered a middle class → rapid social change but at the cost of domestic resentment ○ Rampant corruption in high government positions → strengthen military and support Shah’s lavish lifestyle ● Shah’s rule → increasingly autocratic → cracked down on religious institutions and its civil societies ○ Cost of little to no legitimization of Shah’s rule ● Economic development and prosperity mostly benefited upper class Opposition to the Shah and the Iranian Revolution ■ Worsening of Iranian economy in mid 1970s ←> highly educated urban youth and increased state repression → open conflict ■ 1977 → Jimmy Carter → criticized Shah for negligent practices upon people

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Shah in response created limited set of reforms and parts of Civil Society to enter the stage (National Front was able to reorganize) ● US relieved pressure despite hope of Iranian people for US to continue to press on Iranians → Khomeni for external opposition to repressive rule ● Khomeni’s Islamic Government: The Governance of the Jurist ○ Vision for Islamic political system in Iran → odds with much of the Shia clergy ○ Argued Islamic gov’t → constructed around concept “velayat-e-faqih” (clerical rule) ■ Monarchy was an usurpation of Allah’s rule on earth ■ Systemic gov’t made of clergy trained in “Islamic jurisprudence” → continuation of the political system, first established by the Prophet Muhammad ■ Clergy → serve as regent to the Mahdi → Mahdi will return someday to reestablish political and religious righteousness ○ This form of gov’t is the only one consistent with the will of God ■ Shah and secularist ideas should be overthrown 1978 → Iranian gov’t attempted a smear campaign against Khomeni → only increased public support for Khomeni’s vision ● Gov’t response to public opposition = harsh → conflict that resulted in 40 day mourning period Aug 1978 → Abadan Cinema Rex fire ● Killed ~400 people ● Rumored that SAVAK had torched the theater → funerals for victims caused even more public unrest and uproar Shah declared martial law in response to public protests ● Protests continued with ideals of Ashura and Hussein in mind Sept 1978 → massive protest in Tehran called for an end to the monarchy and return and imposition of Khomeni ● Army killed hundreds → violence sparked more religious symbolism → martyr cause and coming of Mahdi Shah sought asylum in France → persuaded gov’t to relocate him ● Made Khomeni’s position and claim to power that much stronger Nov 1978 → Tehran was in state of mass protest and violence ● Shah feared losing grip on power and safety ● Protests → military began to defect, Pahlavi Dynasty fell → replacement provisional gov’t with strong support of country Feb 1, 1979

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● Ayatollah Khomeni returns to Iran The Consolidation of an Islamic Republic ■ Revolution did not mean that Iran → Islamic Regime ■ Khomeni → capitalized on political turmoil and personal charisma → gained control of gov’t and drafted a new constitution ● President, PM, and Faqih (religious leader educated in Islamic law) ○ Khomeni = Faqih until death in 1989 ■ Islamic Republic of Iran ● New gov’t suppressed all opposition ● 1979 - 1980 → thousands were killed → “revolutionary justice” ■ Iranian Hostage Crisis ● Destroyed Iranian international relations with the West ● Student radicals → mobbed and seized US embassy → held 52 American hostages for 444 days ● Khomeni did not initially support the students → eventually supported to marginalize liberalism and those who favored good relations with the US ■ Iran-Iraq War ● Iraq’s authoritarian leader → Saddam Hussein → saw developments and unfolding of Iranian Revolution as threat to Iraq ○ Khomeni wanted to spread ideology → most logical target was Iraq ■ Half of Iraq’s population → Shiite ● Iraq → extend power in region amongst Iranian chaos → oil refineries ● Sept 1980 → Iraq launched invasion in Iran → lasted until 1988 ○ Destruction on both sides ○ Iraq had US backing and significantly better firepower ○ Iran’s military → shorted by Western sanctions ■ Revolution → united people in a way Iraq had not anticipated ● 1982 → Hussein attempted to end the war → Khomeni refused → opportunity to carry revolution across Middle East ○ Political slogan → “The Road to Jerusalem runs through Baghdad” ■ Framed Iranian Revolution → greater struggle for Arabs and Palestinians against Israel ● 1988 → Iran used chemical weapons against Iraq → conflict ended in stalemate

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Iran exhausted resources → failed in removing Hussein from power Soon after → Khomeni died → Islamic Republic → no founder or spiritual guide

Political Regime ■ Post Khomeni → Iran faced what Max Weber coined as “the routinization of charisma” ● How does a nation maintain the ideals and goals of a leader when that leader is gone? ○ Institutions strive to find balance between popular rights and word of God Political Institutions ○ The Constitution ■ Constitution is product of 1979 Revolution ● Only major amendments → 1989 → Khomeni made sure institutions would remain after death ■ Details origin of current regime → revolt against the “American Conspiracy” of the White Revolution ■ Islamic Republic exists not to serve the people, but to guide them towards God ● Quran + foundation of unified national ideology → embodiment of political system ● “All civil, penal, financial, economic, administrative, cultural, military, political, and other laws and regulations must be based on Islamic criteria” → consistent with religious fundamentalism → attempt to express will of God ○ Challenges secularism and democracy → people inherit powers and rights that are given solely from God ○ Sharia (God’s Law) reigns supreme ■ Revolution was by the people, not from Khomeini or the Ulema ● Constitution embodies republican, not democratic elements → tension between theocracy and republicanism ○ The Supreme Leader and the President ■ Velayat-e-faqih (clerical rule) ■ Seen most in executive ● Dual executive → divides pow...