Theories in World Politics PDF

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REALISM 15 April 2017 06:19 OVERVIEW Realism is the Predominant School of Thought in IR Theory Although a highly diverse body of thought, it can be thought of as unified the belief that world politics ultimately is always and necessarily a field of conflict among actors pursuing power. Realists come...

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REALISM 15 April 2017

06:19

__________________________________________________________ OVERVIEW __________________________________________________________ Realism is the Predominant School of Thought in IR Theory Although a highly diverse body of thought, it can be thought of as unified by the belief that world politics ultimately is always and necessarily a field of conflict among actors pursuing power. Realists come in two forms depending on how they believe conflict is sourced from. 1. Classical Realists (AGENCY) a. Believe that conflict is a result of human nature 2. Neo-Realists (STRUCTURE) a. Believe that conflict is a result of the structure of the anarchic state system b. Provides a systematic theory of IR c. Follows an economic rational choice approach, meaning states are predictable and rational actors d. Neorealism looks at the international structure and interactions within this structure e. Pursuit of power is caused by the international structure of anarchy Realists also disagree about what kind of action states ought to take to navigate world politics, dividing between defensive realism and offensive realism. 1. Defensive Realism a. It finds its foundation in Kenneth Waltz's Theory of International Politics. b. Waltz argues that the anarchical structure of the international system encourages states to maintain moderate and reserved policies to attain security. 2. Offensive Realism a. Assumes that states seek to maximize their power and influence to achieve security through domination and hegemony Main Assumptions 1. The International System is Anarchic ○ No actor exists above states and is capable of regulating them. ○ States must arrive at relations with other states on their own, rather than being dictated by a higher authority. 2. States are the most important actors 3. All states within the system are unitary, rational actors. ○ States tend to pursue self-interest ○ Groups strive to attain as many resources as possible

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4. The Primary concern of all states is Survival __________________________________________________________ KEY THINKERS __________________________________________________________ - Classical Realists ○ Niccolò Machiavelli (Policies are more important than principles, or “it is better to be feared than loved, if you cannot be both.”) ▪ He wrote about power, balance of power, formation of alliances, causes of conflict. ▪ His primary focus was on national security. ▪ Survival of the state is crucial. □ The main responsibility of the rulers is always to defend the interests of the state and ensure its survival. ▪ Power (Lion) and deception (Fox) are two essential means for the conduct of foreign policy. If necessary, a ruler must be ruthless and deceptive while defending self-interest. ▪ His famous work “The Prince” deals with how to gain, maintain and expand power. ○ Thomas Hobbes (Life in the state of nature is "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short”, giving the justification for a strong sovereign state.) ▪ He had a pessimistic view of human nature. He emphasizes the necessity of having a powerful, centralized political authority. ▪ Human beings lived in a condition of war ‘every one against every one’. ▪ He tried to show in order to escape from this situation, he suggested placing all power to a sovereign state or Leviathan (a state authority or supreme ruler) that would maintain order and end anarchy. □ The "natural condition of mankind" is what would exist if there were no government, no civilization, known as the state of nature ▪ Without order: no economic development, art, knowledge… □ His famous work Leviathan, outlines this ○ Hans Morgenthau (“Politics is governed by objective laws that have their roots in human nature.”)

▪ He places selfishness and power-lust at the center of his picture of human existence ▪ The insatiable human lust for power, timeless and universal, which he identifies with animus dominandi, the desire to dominate, is for him the main cause of conflict. □ Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace  “international politics, like all politics, is a struggle for power” World Politics THEORIES Page 2

▪ Six Principles of Political Realism 1. Politics is Governed by objective laws with roots in self-centred human nature 2. States act in the international sphere in terms of national interest defined as power 3. Interest defined in terms of power is an objective category with universal validity a) Power may compromise anything that establishes control of man over man 4. Moral principles cannot be applied to international politics 5. There is a temptation to clothe power aspiration in the language of morality 6. Autonomy of the Political Sphere - economics, morality, law, religion, does not affect politics - Neo-Realists ○ Kenneth Waltz (“With many sovereign states, with no system of law enforceable among them, with each state judging its grievances and ambitions according to the dictates of its own reason or desire - conflict, sometimes leading to war, is bound to occur”) ▪ Stated that the interaction of sovereign states can be explained by the pressures exerted on them by the anarchic structure of the international system, which limits and constrains their choices ▪ According to Waltz, the uniform behaviour of states over centuries can be explained by the constraints on their behaviour that are imposed by the structure of the international system. ▪ Wars occur because there is nothing to prevent it __________________________________________________________ OTHER KEY CONCEPTS __________________________________________________________ Balance of Power Theory - The balance of power theory is a core tenet of both classical and neorealist theory and seeks to explain alliance formation. - Due to the neorealist idea of anarchism as a result of the international system, states must ensure their survival through maintaining or increasing their power in a self-help world. ○ With no authority above the state to come to its rescue in the event of an attack by a hegemon, states attempt to prevent a potential hegemon from arising by balancing against it - Peace can only be attainable by means of a "balance of power" - The balancing process helps temporarily maintain the stability of relations between states ○ But the struggle for power is evident and cooperation can be limited

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Hegemonic Stability Theory - HST indicates that the international system is more likely to remain stable when a single nation-state is the dominant world power, or hegemon. - Thus, the fall of an existing hegemon or the state of no hegemon diminishes the stability of the international system. - When a hegemon exercises leadership, either through diplomacy, coercion, or persuasion, it is actually deploying its "preponderance of power." __________________________________________________________ LIMITATIONS __________________________________________________________ - Not realistic: a misnomer ○ State centricism ignores other important non-state actors ○ State-centrism too reductive - national interest taken for granted ○ Focus on military power is limiting ▪ What about economics, culture, religion? ○ Reading of anarchy too deterministic, reality is more complex ▪ Space for cooperation? - Is it really universal? ○ Current state system is a recent phenomenon ○ Takes state for granted ○ Can't account for change, such as human rights and globalisation - No space for morality in IR? - Not really neutral, objectively describes the world ○ Self-fulfilling proficy ○ Sanctifies self-interest ○ Selectively interprets events

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LIBERALISM 16 April 2017

06:19

__________________________________________________________ OVERVIEW __________________________________________________________ Liberalism is often seen as the historical alternative to Realism

It is not necessarily a 'coherent' tradition, as there are different forms: ○ They disagree on what causes war and what kind of institutions are required to deliver liberal values in an international system ○ The Positive/Negative debate ▪ Positive Conception: advocates interventionist foreign policies and stronger international institutions ▪ Negative Conception: places a priority on toleration and nonintervention - Ultimately, It is a body of thought that believes that ○ Locke: Individuals are morally good and cooperative ○ International Politics is composed of sovereign nation-states ▪ Positivist ○ There is an international society with community, liberty, justice, and toleration - Its Core Themes are that of ○ Harmony and balance amongst competing interests ▪ Actors may pursue self-interest but a natural equilibrium will assert itself □ Conflict is always solvable ○ Therefore rejects the realist perception of power politics as the only possible outcome in world affairs ○ Normative commitment to both peace and cooperation ○ Absolute gains to achieve positive benefits for all parties Liberalism come in two forms depending on how they focus on concepts of International Relations - Classical Liberalism (STATE CENTRIC) ○ States are the most important actors in world politics ○ Internal characteristics of states have important effects on state behaviour - Neo-Liberalism (INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONS) ○ A response to neo-realism ○ Accepts all hard assumptions of realism by attempting to show international institutions can enhance interstate cooperation and mutual gains __________________________________________________________

LIBERALISM EXPANDED __________________________________________________________

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- Kant: Grounded in the philosophical ideas of peace from the enlightenment period ○ Natural order had been corrupted by undemocratic state leaders and outdated policies such as the balance of power ○ Morality can be achieved through the exercise of reason and through the creation of states ○ The power of the world public opinion to tame the interests of states ○ Unrestricted movement of people and goods could further facilitate more peaceful international relations ▪ Interdependence - Smith and Ricardo: Grounded in commercial liberalism (19th century) and the benefits of free markets and trade ○ Division of labour which leads to lower costs (comparative advantage) ▪ Comparative advantage means that one country may have an advantage in one industry □ Each country is good at something therefore all can benefit ○ Economic interdependence makes international conflict costly - Linear Trajectory of History ○ The possibility of improving civilization (emancipation), fundamental human concern for the welfare of others (derived from Enlightenment ideals) - "Inside-out" Approach ○ Conclusions about global affairs are derived from assumptions about the political makeup of the state ▪ Authoritarian states: aggressive because of popular pressure and powerful armies ▪ Democratic States: naturally peaceful, don’t go to war with each other - Domestic Analogy ○ Domesticating the international realm ▪ The principles of domestic policy should be translated into foreign policy ○ Translating the morally good human nature to the state and then to the international level ○ If I am good, then the state is good, then the international is good - Democratic Peace-theory ○ Almost no liberal states have gone to war with each other ▪ Monadic variant: democracies are inherently peaceful □ Kant: But democracies engage in war against nondemocracies ▪ Dyadic variant: ideological/cultural/practical similarities □ Democracies choose not to fight each other ○ War is justified for the promotion of democracy - International Law and International Organisations ○ Woodrow Wilson: The importance of the rule of law and international organisations in defending and upholding peace and cooperation

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__________________________________________________________ NEO-LIBERALISM EXPANDED __________________________________________________________ - Neo-liberalism is a problem solving theory ○ It developed in the 1980s and post-Cold War - Neoliberal institutionalism ○ Institutions ▪ Mediators to facilitate cooperation among states on matters of common interest ○ International Collective Outcomes ▪ States alter their behaviour to the preferences of other states so their policies are seen as complementary □ Absolute Gains ○ Focuses on durability of international institutions despite changes and challenges - International Society: acceptance of anarchy, but is more optimistic ○ State centric international society ▪ Rational, self-interested, outcome-maximising actors ▪ Protective force, provider of benefits, arbitrator □ Checks and balances ▪ All states are equal in the international society ○ Kegley: Good human nature ▪ Bad human behaviour is the product of evil institutions and structural arrangements that motivate people to act selfishly ▪ A change in structure will resolve bad behaviours - Kegley: International Regimes (Regime Theory) ○ "Sets of implicit or explicit principles, norms, rules, and decision-making procedures around which actors' expectation converge in a given area of international relations" ▪ Totality of cooperative efforts in the international stage ○ Violence and war arise due to bad regimes ○ Complex interdependence ▪ Non-economic interdependence caused by globalization, transnational political and cultural flows, climate change, development and poverty reduction, human rights ○ Regional security complexes ▪ If states believe a region has potential, they integrate them □ Regional integration ○ Liberalism sees anarchy as being filled with institutions that can stop conflict - Fukuyama: End of History ○ Wide acceptance of liberal-democratic principles and the extension of market capitalism ▪ End of history is a more stable and peaceful global order ○ Since the 20th century, totalitarian and communist regimes were defeated by democracies.

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▪ Therefore the world has reached "the end point of mankind's ideological evolution and the universalization of Western liberal democracy" ○ Events will not stop from happening, but there will not be any progress or development of new political and social institutions as all important issues will be set based on two reasons: ▪ Economic and the struggle for recognition ○ Subjective ideas of courage, idealism, and imagination, will be replaced by "economic calculation, the solving of technical problems, environmental concerns, and the satisfaction of consumer demands" __________________________________________________________ LIMITATIONS __________________________________________________________ - Too optimistic about the ○ Possibility for cooperation ○ Possibility for progress ○ Pacifying potential of liberal democracy ○ Successes of capitalism - Western-centric ○ Projects western ideas, experiences, and modes of government as universal, best, and necessary - Colonial dimension ○ “Democracy promotion” used to advance Western interests ○ “Free trade” ideals used to restructure “peripheral” economies in devastating ways, with support of “liberal” institutions (e.g., IMF, World Bank) ○ Democratic Peace Thesis justifies endless war in the name of peace

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CONSTRUCTIVISM 08 May 2017

07:25

__________________________________________________________ OVERVIEW __________________________________________________________ Constructivism has been the most influential post-positivist approach to international theory. - Constructivist analysis is based on the belief that there is no objective social or political reality. ○ Reality is Socially Constructed ○ The concepts of International Politics (states, alliances, institutions) are made, not given - Constructivists do not regard the social world as something 'out there', it exists only 'inside' as a kind of inter-subjective awareness. - People 'construct' the world in which they live in and act according to those constructions. ○ Actors give meaning to events and facts to make them relevant ○ Meanings do not arise spontaneously, but are produced by social and political interaction - People's beliefs and assumptions become significant when they are widely shared, especially when giving a community a sense of identity. - Constructivist analysis highlights the missing dimension in the 'structureagency' debate. ○ They see that interactions between agents and structures are mediated by 'ideational factors' ▪ Ideational Factors: beliefs, values, theories, assumptions □ For example: nations are not objective entities, rather they are subjective, defined by their members' traditions, values, and sentiments ▪ These ideational factors affect how agents see themselves and how they understand/respond to structures ▪ However, this implies that constructivism is not much of a substantive theory, but more of an approach to understanding. Two Variations of Constructivism 1. Conventional Constructivism a. Refine the realist/liberal framework b. Hold on to scientific method c. Build a more reflexive traditional theory 2. Critical Constructivism a. Challenges the core assumptions of traditional IR Theory

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Misc. Thinkers Thomas Kuhn: Shift in Paradigms - Argued that changes in scientists' views of reality are not only subjective, but a result of group dynamics ○ 'Revolutions' in scientific practice resulting in paradigm changes Finnemore and Sikkink: Life cycle of an Idea - This is a way for constructivists to explain how an idea becomes a norm - The "life cycle" consists of three main stages ○ Norm Emergence ○ Norm Acceptance ○ Internalization - Changes in each stage is a result of different actors, motives, and mechanisms of influence __________________________________________________________ CONVENTIONAL CONSTRUCTIVISM __________________________________________________________ Aleksander Wendt: "Anarchy is what states make of it" - Conventional Constructivism, like realism, sees states as the principal units of analysis ○ It also agrees about the centrality of anarchy

- However, rejects the structural basis of realism ○ Rejects both human nature and the inherently anarchical nature of IR ○ Rather, state identity and interests are constructed by social structures - Anarchy has no property of its own ○ Different cultures of anarchy based on different types of relationships between states ○ States' interactions and beliefs determine the effects of anarchy ○ As Wendt states, "Anarchy is what states make of it" - Rethinks State Relations ○ States can be friends or enemies, depending on identities ▪ Anarchy Experience can be shifted □ Positive identification can lead to security communities ▪ Security dilemmas are not inevitable ▪ International institutions can help to foster better anarchies ▪ Realism leaves out crucial points because it does not account for identity and change - Importance of Identity ○ Define a sense of self and allies Vs. Others and enemies ○ Explains the persistence of NATO after the soviet union collapse ▪ Against neorealist prediction that NATO would diminish due to no common enemy ○ States' socialisation - identity can change ▪ Such as EU accessions criteria

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○ Defining 'others' - identity as much concerned with what it is not ▪ Axis of evil in WWII: Germany, Japan, Italy ▪ Axis of evil in 'War on Terror': Iraq, Iran, North Korea Limitations - Neorealist assumptions remain broadly accepted ○ States as the main actors - Wendt simply accepts facts below a level of social construction ○ Aren't states themselves socially constructed? ○ How are they produced? ○ How do they become actors or decision makers? - The social construction of international politics is more complicated ○ How are identities formed? ○ How do states believe things? ○ How do beliefs transform into actions __________________________________________________________ CRITICAL CONSTRUCTIVISM __________________________________________________________ - What is understood as reality is actually...