Ch. 1 Notes - Infants and Children: Prenatal Through Middle Childhood PDF

Preview

Summary

Chapter notes...

Description

Ch. 1 – History, Theory, & Research Strategies Child development – an area of study devoted to understanding constancy & change from conception through adolescence Developmental science – larger, interdisciplinary field that includes all changes we experience throughout the lifespan (incl. child development) Common goal in studying child development: to describe & ID those factors that influence the consistencies & changes in young people during the 1st 2 decades of life

1.1 The Field of Child Development - Research stimulated by: 1. Scientific curiosity 2. Social pressures to improve the lives of children  Interdisciplinary Domains of Development 1. Physical

Changes in body size, proportions, appearance, functioning of body systems, perceptual & motor capacities, and physical health

2. Cognitive

Changes in intellectual abilities, including attention, memory, academic & everyday knowledge, problem solving, imagination, creativity, and language

3. Emotional & Social

Changes in emotional communication, self-understanding, knowledge about other people, interpersonal skills, friendships, intimate relationships, and moral reasoning & behaviour

- Domains aren’t really distinct; they combine in an integrated, holistic fashion to yield the living, growing child - Each domain influences & is influenced by the others Periods of Development - Each brings new capacities & social expectations that serve as important transitions in major theories 1. The Prenatal Period – conception to birth

*9 months – most rapid time of change - One-celled organism into human baby with remarkable capacities for adjusting to life in the surrounding world

2. Infancy & Toddlerhood – birth to 2 years

Infancy = 1st year Toddlerhood = 2nd year - 1st independent steps (shift to greater autonomy) - Dramatic changes in body & brain that support the emergence of a wide array of motor, perceptual, & intellectual capacities a) Beginnings of language b) 1st intimate ties to others

3. Early Childhood – 2 to 6 years

- Body = longer & leaner - Motor skills = refined - Children become more self-controlled & self-sufficient - Make-believe play  reflecting & supporting many aspects of psychological development - Thought & language expand at astounding pace - Sense of morality becomes evident - Children establish ties with peers

4. Middle Childhood – 6 to 11 years

- Children learn about the wider world & master new responsibilities that increasingly resemble those they’ll perform as adults - Hallmarks of this period: a) Improved athletic abilities b) Participation in organized games with rules

c) More logical thought processes d) Mastery of fundamental reading, writing, math, & other academic knowledge & skills e) Advances in understanding the self, morality, & friendship 5. Adolescence – 11 to 18 years

*Initiates the transition to adulthood - Puberty  adult-sized body & sexual maturity - Thought becomes increasingly complex, abstract, & idealistic - Schooling is directed toward preparation for higher education & the world of work - Young people begin to establish autonomy from the family & to define personal values & goals

Emerging adulthood – age 18 to mid- to late-20s; moved beyond adolescence but haven’t yet fully assumed adult roles - During higher education & sometimes beyond, these young people intensify their exploration in love, career, & personal values before making enduring commitments - The transition to adult roles has become increasingly prolonged for many contemporary youths in industrialized nations, so this new period of development has been posited

1.2 Basic Issues Theory – an orderly, integrated set of statements that describes, explains, and predicts behaviour - Vital for 2 reasons: (1) They provide organizing frameworks for our observations of children  they guide & give meaning to what we see (2) Ones that’re verified by research often serve as a sound basis for practical action  once a theory helps us understand development, we’re in a much better position to know how to improve the welfare & treatment of children - Influenced by the cultural values & belief systems of their times - 1 important difference b/w a theory and a mere opinion or belief  A theory’s continued existence depends on scientific verification - Every theory must be tested using a fair set of research procedures agreed on by the scientific community, and its findings must endure, or be replicated over time - Organize theories by looking at the stand they take on 3 basic issues: (1) Is the course of development continuous or discontinuous? (2) Does 1 course of development characterize all children, or are there many possible courses? (3) What are the roles of genetic & env’tal factors (nature & nurture) in development? Continuous or Discontinuous Development? How can we best describe the differences in capacities & behaviour among small infants, young children, adolescents, & adults? - Most major theories recognize 2 possibilities: Continuous Development  A process of gradually adding more of the same types of skills that were there to begin with - Development is a smooth, continuous process; children gradually add more of the same types of skills - Infants & preschoolers respond to the world in much the same way as adults do - The difference b/w the immature & the mature being is simply one of amount or complexity

Discontinuous Development  A process in which new ways of understanding & responding to the world emerge at specific times - Children change rapidly as they step up to a new level & then change v little for a while - With each step, the child interprets & responds to the world in a qualitatively different way - Move through series of developmental steps, each with unique features, until reaching the highest level of functioning

*Theories that accept the discontinuous perspective regard development as taking place in stages Stages – qualitative changes in thinking, feeling, & behaving that characterize specific periods of development Stage Theories - Development = like climbing a staircase, with each step corresponding to a more mature, reorganized way of functioning - Assumes that children undergo periods of rapid transformation as they step up from 1 stage to the next, alternating with plateaus during which they stand solidly within a stage  Change is fairly sudden rather than gradual & ongoing One Course of Development or Many? - Stage theorists assume that people everywhere follow the same sequence of development - Field of child development is becoming increasingly aware that children grow up in distinct contexts Contexts – unique combinations of personal & env’tal circumstances that can result in different paths of change - These different circumstances foster different cognitive capacities, social skills, and feelings about the self & others - Contemporary theorists regard contexts that shape development as many-layered & complex Personal circumstances – heredity & biological makeup Env’tal circumstances – immediate settings (home, childcare center, school, neighbourhood) & more remote from children’s everyday lives (community resources, societal values & priorities, historical time period) Relative Influence of Nature & Nurture? Nature-nurture controversy – debate among theorists about whether genetic or env’tal factors are more important influences on development Nature – the hereditary info we receive from our parents at the moment of conception Nurture – the complex forces of the physical & social world that influence our biological makeup & psychological experiences before & after birth - A theory’s position on the roles of nature & nurture affects how it explains individual differences Stability vs. Plasticity Stability emphasized – children who are high or low in a characteristic (i.e. verbal ability, anxiety, or sociability) will remain so at later ages  Typically stress the importance of heredity - If they regard env’t as important, they usually point to early experiences as establishing lifelong pattern of behaviour - They argue that powerful negative events in the 1st few years can’t be fully overcome by later, more positive ones Plasticity – openness of human development to change in response to influential experiences A Balanced POV – Biology & Env’t - Evidence shows that env’tal risks (poverty, negative family interactions & parental divorce, job loss, mental illness, & drug abuse) predispose children to future problems Resilience – the ability to adapt effectively in the face of threats to development - 4 broad facts seem to offer protection from the damaging effects of stressful life events: 1. Personal Characteristics  A child’s genetically influenced characteristics can reduce exposure to risk or lead to experiences that compensate for early stressful events a) High intelligence & socially valued talents b) Temperament – easygoing, sociable dispositions, & those that can readily inhibit negative emotions & impulses (qualities that elicit positive responses from others) *Emotionally reactive & irritable children often tax the patience of people around

2. A Warm Parental Relationship  A close relationship with at least 1 parent who provides warmth, appropriately high expectations, monitoring of the child’s activities, & an organized home env’t fosters resilience - Not independent of children’s personal characteristics - Relaxed, socially responsive, & able to deal with change = easier to rear & more likely to enjoy positive relationships with parents & other

them 3. Social Support Outside the Immediate Family  Most consistent asset of resilient children is a strong bond with a competent, caring adult - Associations with rule-abiding peers who value school achievement are also linked to resilience, but children who have positive relationships with adults = far more likely to establish these supportive peer ties

people 4. Community Resources & Opportunities  Community supports (good schools, convenient & affordable health care & social services, libraries, & recreation centers) foster both parents’ & children’s well-being - Opportunities to participate in community life help older children & adolescents overcome adversity - Extracurricular activities at school, religious youth groups, scouting, & other organizations teach important social skills

- Research on resilience highlights the complex connections b/w heredity & env’t - Armed with positive characteristics (stem from native endowment, favourable rearing experiences, or both) children & adolescents can act to reduce stressful situations *But when many risks pile up, they’re increasingly difficult to overcome

1.3 Historical Foundations - Contemporary theories of child development are the result of centuries of change in Western cultural values, philosophical thinking about children, & scientific progress Medieval Times (6th through 15th centuries) - Childhood was regarded as separate period of life as early as medieval Europe - Written texts distinguished children under age 7 or 8 from other people & recognized even younger teenagers as not fully mature - Laws recognized that children needed protection from people who might mistreat them, & courts exercised leniency with lawbreaking youths bc of their tender years Summary: in medieval times, if not before, clear awareness existed of children as vulnerable beings - Religious writings contained contradictory depictions of children’s basic nature, sometimes portraying them as possessed by the devil & in need of purification, at other times as innocent & close to angels The Reformation (16th century) - Puritan belief in original sin gave rise to view that children were born evil & stubborn & had to be civilized (using clothing & beatings) - As Puritans emigrated from England to New World  they brought belief that child rearing was 1 of most important obligations - As they trained their children in self-reliance & self-control, Puritan parents gradually adopted a moderate balance b/w severity & permissiveness Philosophies of the Enlightenment (17th century) - New philosophies that emphasized ideals of human dignity & respect (conceptions of childhood more humane than in the past) 1. John Locke (1632-1704; British philosopher) - Forerunner of a 20th-century perspective - Viewed the child as a tabula rasa (Latin for “blank slate”)  Children begin as nothing at all; their characters are shaped entirely by experience - Parents = rational tutors who can mold the child in any way they wish through careful instruction, effective example, & rewards for good behaviour - Children do little to influence their own destiny, which is written on “blank slates” by others *Has been discarded; all contemporary theories view children as active, purposeful beings who contribute substantially to their own development - Opposed physical punishment (would make them not like school/books) - Locke’s philosophy led to a change from harshness toward children to kindness & compassion  Development = continuous (adultlike behaviours gradually built up through warm, consistent teachings of parents)

 Nurture (the power of env’t to shape the child) - Suggests the possibility of many courses of development & of high plasticity at later ages due to new experiences 2. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778; French philosopher; 18th century)  Children weren’t blank slates to be filled by adult instruction; instead they are noble savages naturally endowed with a sense of right & wrong & an innate plan for orderly, healthy growth - Believed children’s built-in moral sense & unique ways of thinking & feeling would only be harmed by adult training - Child-centered philosophy in which the adult should be receptive to the child’s needs at each of the 4 stages - Includes 2 influential concepts: a) Stages b) Maturation – a genetically determined, naturally unfolding course of growth - Saw children as determining their own destinies  Development = discontinuous, stagewise process that follows a single, unified course mapped out by nature John Locke: Continuous development & nurture

Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Discontinuous development & nature

Scientific Beginnings (late-19th & early-20th centuries) - Improved methods & theories Charles Darwin (1809-1882) – Forefather of Scientific Child Study  British naturalist - Saw that within a species, no 2 individuals are alike  Theory of Evolution - Emphasized 2 related principles: natural selection & survival of the fittest - Certain species survive in particular parts of the world bc they have characteristics that fit with/are adapted to their surroundings - Other species die off bc they’re less well-suited to their env’ts - Individuals within a species who best meet the env’t’s survival requirements live long enough to reproduce & pass their more beneficial characteristics to future generations  Emphasis on the adaptive value of physical characteristics & behaviour - Early prenatal growth is strikingly similar in many species - Other scientists then concluded that development of the human child followed the same general plan as the evolution of the human species  Proved inaccurate - Efforts to chart parallels b/w child growth & human evolution prompted researchers to make careful observations of all aspects of children’s behaviour The Normative Period G. Stanley Hall (1844-1924) - One of the most influential American psychologists of early-20th century - Generally regarded as founder of the child-study movement Hall & Arnold Gesell (1880-1961; Hall’s student) – devised theories based on evolutionary ideas (inspired by Darwin) 1. Regarded development as a maturational process – a genetically determined series of events that unfold automatically (like a flower) 2. Normative approach – measures of behaviour are taken on large #s of individuals & age-related averages are computed to represent typical development Hall – constructed elaborate questionnaires asking children of different ages almost everything they could tell about themselves Gesell – through observations & parent interviews, collected detailed normative info on the motor achievements, social behaviours, & personality characteristics of infants & children  Among the 1st to make knowledge about child development meaningful to parents by telling them what to expect at each age - He believed that the timetable of development is the product of millions of years of evolution

- If this was the case then children are naturally knowledgeable about their needs - He recommended sensitivity to children’s cues (in tradition of Rousseau) - Wrote books (like Benjamin Spock – Baby and Child Care) The Mental Testing Movement (early 1900s) Alfred Binet (1857-1911; French psychologist; took normative approach) & Theodore Simon were asked by Paris school officials to find a way to ID children with learning problems who needed special classes - They constructed the 1st successful intelligence test Binet defined intelligence as good judgment, planning, & critical reflection - He created age-graded test items that directly measured these abilities 1916 – Stanford University adapted Binet’s test for use with English-speaking children  Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale

1.4 Mid-20th -Century Theories European –child’s inner thoughts & feelings North American – academic focus on scientific precision & concrete, observable behaviour The Psychoanalytic Perspective - By 1930s & 1940s, parents increasingly south professional help in dealing with children’s emotional difficulties Psychoanalytic perspective – children move through a series of stages in which they confront conflicts b/w biological drives & social expectations - How these conflicts are resolved determines the person’s ability to: 1. Learn 2. Get along with others 3. Cope with anxiety Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) – Viennese physician - Sought a cure for emotionally troubled adults by having them talk freely about painful events of their childhoods - Examined his patients’ unconscious motivations Psychosexual theory – emphasizes that how parents manage their child’s sexual & aggressive drives in the 1st few years is crucial for healthy personality development - 3 parts of the personality become integrated during 5 stages: 1. Id – largest portion of the mind; source of basic biological needs & desires 2. Ego – conscious, rational part of personality; emerges in early infancy to redirect the id’s impulses so they’re discharged in acceptable ways 3. Superego (conscience) – develops b/w 3 & 6 years of age as parents insist that children conform to the values of society - Now the ego faces increasingly complex task of reconciling the demands of the id, the external world, & conscience *The relations established b/w id, ego, & superego during the preschool years determine the individual’s basic personality - During childhood, sexual impulses shift their focus from the oral to the anal to the genital regions of the body - In each stage, parents walk a fine line b/w permitting too much or too little gratification of their child’s basic needs - If good balance, children grow into well-adjusted adults with capacity for mature sexual behaviour & investment in family life - 1st to stress the influence of the early parent-child relationship on development  Criticized (theory) (1) It overemphasized the influence of sexual feelings in development (2) Bc it was based on problems of sexually repressed, well-to-do adults in 19th-century Victorian society, it didn’t apply in other cultures (3) He hadn’t studied children directly Erik Erikson (1902-1994) Psychosocial theory – emphasizes that at each Freudian stage, individuals not only develop a unique personality but also acquire attitudes & skills that help them become active, contributing members of society

- A basic psychological conflict (resolved along a continuum from positive to negative) determines healthy or maladaptive outcomes at each stage - Added 3 adult stages - One of the 1st to recognize the lifespan nature of development - Unlike Freud, he pointed out that norm...