Chapt 13 PDF

Preview

Summary

Chapt 13...

Description

Chapter 13

Major Structures

Relat Related ed Combining Forms

Primary Functions

Major Structures

Relat Related ed Combining Forms

Primary Functions

Adrenal Glands

adren/o

Regulate electrolyte levels, influence metabolism, and respond to stress.

Gonads

gonad/o

Gamete (sex cell) producing glands

Male: Testicles

testic/o

Sperm producing gland

Female: Ovaries

ov ovari/o ari/o

Ova (egg) producing gland

Pancreatic Islets

pancreat/o

Control blood sugar levels and glucose metabolism.

Parathyroid Glands

parath parathyroid/o yroid/o

Regulate calcium levels throughout the body.

Pineal Gland

pineal/o

Influences the sleep–wakefulness cycle.

Pituitary Gland

pituit/o, pituitar/o

Secretes hormones that control the activity of the other endocrine glands.

Thymus

thym/o

Plays a major role in the immune reaction.

Thyroid Gland

thyr/o, thyroid/o

Stimulates metabolism, growth, and the activity of the nervous system.

Word Parts  acr/o extremities (hands and feet), top, extreme point  adren/o adrenal glands  crin/o secrete  -dipsia thirst  glyc/o glucose, sugar  gonad/o gonad, sex glands  -ism condition, state of  pancreat/o pancreas  parathyroid/o parathyroid glands  pineal/o pineal gland  pituitar/o pituitary gland  poly- many  somat/o body  thym/o thymus gland  thyr/o, thyroid/o thyroid gland

acromegaly A rare chronic disease characterized by abnormal enlargement of the extremities (hands and feet) caused by excessive secretion of growth hormone after puberty. Addison’s disease A condition that occurs when the adrenal glands do not produce enough of the hormones cortisol or aldosterone. adrenalitis Inflammation of the adrenal glands. aldosteronism An abnormality of electrolyte balance caused by excessive secretion of aldosterone. antidiuretic hormone  The hormone that helps control blood pressure by reducing the amount of water that is excreted through the kidneys. calcitonin  A hormone that works with the parathyroid hormone to decrease calcium levels in the blood and tissues. Conn’s syndrome A disorder of the adrenal glands due to excessive production of aldosterone. Cortisol  A hormone that has an anti-inflammatory action; it also regulates the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins in the body. Cretinism  A congenital form of hypothyroidism that, if not treated soon after birth, causes arrested physical and mental development. Cushing’s syndrome A condition caused by the overproduction of cortisol by the body or by taking corticosteroids to treat inflammatory diseases such as asthma and rheumatoid arthritis; also known as hypercortisolism. diabetes insipidus A condition caused by insufficient production of the antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or by the inability of the kidneys to respond to ADH. diabetes mellitus A group of metabolic disorders characterized by hyperglycemia resulting from defects in insulin secretion, insulin action, or both. diabetic retinopathy Injury to the eye that occurs when diabetes damages the tiny blood vessels in the retina of the eye. Electrolytes  Mineral substances, such as sodium and potassium, normally found in the blood. Epinephrine  A hormone that stimulates the sympathetic nervous system in response to physical injury or to mental stress such as fear; also known as adrenaline. Estrogen  A hormone with an important role in the development and maintenance of the female secondary sex characteristics and the regulation of the menstrual cycle.

Exophthalmos  An abnormal protrusion of the eyeball out of the orbit. follicle-stimulating hormone The hormone that stimulates the secretion of estrogen and the growth of ova (eggs) in the ovaries of the female. In the male, it stimulates the production of sperm in the testicles (testes). fructosamine test A blood test that measures average glucose levels over the past 3 weeks. gestational diabetes mellitus The form of diabetes that occurs during some pregnancies. Gigantism  Abnormal growth of the entire body that is caused by excessive secretion of growth hormone before puberty. Glucagon  The hormone that increases the amount of glucose in the bloodstream by stimulating the liver to convert glycogen into glucose. Glucose  The basic form of energy used by the body; also known as blood sugar. Graves’ disease A disorder of unknown cause in which the immune system attacks the thyroid gland and stimulates it to make excessive amounts of thyroid hormone, resulting in hyperthyroidism. growth hormone The hormone that regulates the growth of bone, muscle, and other body tissues. Gynecomastia  The condition of excessive mammary development in the male. Hashimoto’s disease An autoimmune disease in which the body's own antibodies attack and destroy the cells of the thyroid gland. hypercalcemia  Abnormally high concentrations of calcium circulating in the blood instead of being stored in the bones and teeth. Hyperglycemia  An abnormally high concentration of glucose in the blood. Hyperinsulinism  A condition marked by excessive secretion of insulin in the bloodstream. hyperpituitarism  The excessive secretion of growth hormone that causes acromegaly and gigantism. Hyperthyroidism  The overproduction of thyroid hormones, which causes an imbalance of metabolism. Hypoglycemia  An abnormally low concentration of glucose (sugar) in the blood.

hypothyroidism  A deficiency of thyroid secretion; also known as underactive thyroid. Insulin  The hormone secreted by the beta cells of the pancreatic islets in response to high levels of glucose in the bloodstream. Its function is to allow glucose to enter cells for energy or to stimulate the liver to convert glucose to glycogen for storage. Insulinoma  A benign tumor of the pancreas that causes hypoglycemia. Ketosis  A normal metabolic process that helps the body utilize stored fat when other sources of energy are lacking laparoscopic adrenalectomy A minimally invasive procedure to surgically remove one or both adrenal glands. Leptin  A protein hormone secreted by fat cells that is involved in the regulation of appetite. luteinizing hormone The hormone that stimulates ovulation in the female and production of the female sex hormone progesterone. In the male, it stimulates the secretion of testosterone. Myxedema A severe form of adult hypothyroidism. norepinephrine A combination of a hormone and a neurohormone that plays an important role in the "fight-or-flight response." Oxytocin  Hormone secreted by the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland that stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth Pancreatitis  Inflammation of the pancreas Parathyroidectomy  The surgical removal of one or more of the parathyroid glands. pituitary adenoma One of two types of slow-growing, benign tumors of the pituitary gland that may or may not cause excess hormone secretion. Polydipsia  Excessive thirst. Polyphagia  Excessive hunger. Polyuria  Excessive urination. prediabetes  A condition in which the blood sugar level is higher than normal, but not high enough to be classified as type 2 diabetes.

progesterone  This hormone, whose function is to complete the preparation of the uterus for pregnancy, is released during the second half of the menstrual cycle by the corpus luteum in the ovary. Prolactinoma  A benign tumor of the pituitary gland that causes the gland to produce too much prolactin Puberty  The process of physical changes by which a child's body becomes an adult body that is capable of reproducing. radioactive iodine treatment The oral administration of radioactive iodine to destroy thyroid cells. Steroids  A large family of hormonelike substances that share the same fat-soluble chemical structure. Testosterone  A steroid hormone secreted by the testes and the adrenal cortex that stimulates the development of male secondary sex characteristics. Thymectomy  The surgical removal of the thymus gland. Thymitis  Inflammation of the thymus gland. Thymosin  Hormone secreted by the thymus gland that stimulates the maturation of lymphocytes into T cells of the immune system. Thyroxine  One of the primary hormones secreted by the thyroid gland that regulate the rate of metabolism and affect the growth and rate of function of other body systems.

The Pituitary Gland o Acromegaly is a rare chronic disease characterized by abnormal enlargement of the extremities (hands and feet) caused by the excessive secretion of growth hormone after puberty o acr/o means extremities, and -megaly means enlargement  Contrast with gigantism. o Gigantism is abnormal growth of the entire body that is caused by excessive secretion of growth hormone before puberty. Contrast with acromegaly. o Hyperpituitarism is the excess secretion of growth hormone that causes acromegaly and gigantism o hyper- means excessive, pituitar means pituitary, and -ism means condition o Short stature, formerly known as dwarfism, is sometimes caused by deficient secretion of growth hormone o A pituitary adenoma is also known as a pituitary tumor. There are two types of these slow-growing benign tumors of the pituitary gland. o Functioning pituitary tumors often produce hormones in large and unregulated amounts. o Nonfunctioning pituitary tumors do not produce excessive amounts of hormones. o Galactorrhea is a condition in which an excess of prolactin causes the breasts to produce milk spontaneously, not due to childbirth. o A prolactinoma is a benign tumor of the pituitary gland o pro- means on behalf of, lactin means milk, and -oma means tumor  This type of tumor, which causes the pituitary gland to produce too much of the lactogenic hormone known as prolactin, can cause infertility in women and erectile dysfunction in men and can impair vision. Antidiuretic Hormone Conditions o Diabetes insipidus (DI), which is not related to diabetes mellitus, is an uncommon disorder caused by an insufficient production of the antidiuretic hormone ADH or by the inability of the kidneys to respond appropriately to this hormone. o When there is an insufficient quantity of ADH, too much fluid is excreted by the kidneys. This causes polydipsia (excessive thirst) and polyuria (excessive urination) that in extreme cases can reach over 20 quarts a day. If this problem is not controlled, it can cause severe dehydration. o Insipidus comes from a Latin word meaning without taste, referring to the relatively low sodium (salt) content of the urine in patients with diabetes insipidus. o Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone (SIADH) is caused by the overproduction of the antidiuretic hormone ADH. This is often as a result of cancer or its treatment. High amounts of ADH keep the kidneys from excreting water, resulting in bloating and water retention that can dilute the blood, causing electrolyte imbalances, particularly hyponatremia (low levels of sodium).

Pathology of the Pineal Gland

o A pinealoma is a tumor of the pineal gland that can disrupt the production of melatonin o pineal means pineal gland, and -oma means tumor  This tumor can also cause insomnia by disrupting the circadian cycle. The Thyroid Gland Thyroid carcinoma is the most common cancer of the endocrine system, and is the most rapidly increasing cancer in the United States. Thyroid carcinoma, which has a high survival rate, affects significantly more women than men and is commonly diagnosed between ages 20 and 55. Insufficient Thyroid Secretion o Hashimoto’s disease also known as chronic lymphocytic thyroiditis, is an autoimmune disease in which the body’s own antibodies attack and destroy the cells of the thyroid gland. This inflammation often leads to hypothyroidism. o Hypothyroidism, also known as an underactive thyroid, is caused by a deficiency of thyroid secretion o hypo- means deficient, thyroid means thyroid, and -ism means condition  Symptoms include fatigue, depression, sensitivity to cold, and a decreased metabolic rate. o Cretinism is a congenital form of hypothyroidism. If treatment is not started soon after birth, cretinism causes arrested physical and mental development. o Myxedema, which is also known as adult hypothyroidism, is caused by an extreme deficiency of thyroid secretion. Symptoms include swelling, particularly around the eyes and cheeks; fatigue; and a subnormal temperature. Excessive Thyroid Secretion o Thyroid nodules are lumps in the thyroid that can grow large enough to cause a goiter. Most nodules are benign; however, some are malignant or produce too much thyroxine. o A thyroid storm, also known as a thyrotoxic crisis, is a relatively rare, lifethreatening condition caused by exaggerated hyperthyroidism. Patients experiencing a thyroid storm may complain of fever, chest pain, palpitations, shortness of breath, tremors, increased sweating, disorientation, and fatigue. o Hyperthyroidism, also known as thyrotoxicosis, is the overproduction of thyroid hormones o hyper- means excessive, thyroid means thyroid, and -ism means condition  which causes an imbalance of metabolism. This causes symptoms including an increased metabolic rate, sweating, nervousness, and weight loss. The most common cause of hyperthyroidism is Graves’ disease. Graves’ Disease Graves’ disease is a disorder of unknown cause in which the immune system attacks the thyroid gland and stimulates it to make excessive amounts of thyroid hormone This results in hyperthyroidism and can also cause goiter, exophthalmos, or both. Note: A simple way to remember the difference between Hashimoto’s disease (hypothyroidism) and Graves’ disease (hyperthyroidism) is that the Hashimoto’s has an o in it like in hypo-, and Graves’ has an e in it like in hyper-.

o Goiter also known as thyromegaly, is an abnormal, benign enlargement of the thyroid gland o thyr/o means thyroid, and -megaly means abnormal enlargement  This enlargement produces a swelling in the front of the neck. A goiter usually occurs when the thyroid gland is not able to produce enough thyroid hormone to meet the body’s needs, either due to Graves’ disease, other medical conditions, or an iodine deficiency. o Exophthalmos is an abnormal protrusion of the eyeball out of the orbit o ex- means out, ophthalm/o means eye and -s is a noun ending

The Parathyroid Glands o Hyperparathyroidism, which is the overproduction of the parathyroid hormone, causes the condition known as hypercalcemia o hyper- means excessive, parathyroid means parathyroid, and -ism means condition  Hyperparathyroidism can result from a disorder of the parathyroid gland or from a disorder elsewhere in the body, such as kidney failure. Hyperparathyroidism is the opposite of hypoparathyroidism. o Hypoparathyroidism is caused by an insufficient or absent secretion of the parathyroid hormone o hypo- means deficient, parathyroid means parathyroid, and -ism means condition  This condition causes hypocalcemia, and in severe cases, it leads to tetany. Tetany is the condition of periodic, painful muscle spasms and tremors. Hypoparathyroidism is the opposite of hyperparathyroidism. o Hypercalcemia is characterized by abnormally high concentrations of calcium circulating in the blood instead of being stored in the bones and teeth o hyper- means excessive, calc means calcium, and -emia means blood condition  This can lead to weakened bones and the formation of kidney stones. Hypercalcemia is the opposite of hypocalcemia. o Hypocalcemia is characterized by abnormally low levels of calcium in the blood o hypo- means deficient, calc means calcium, and -emia means blood condition  Hypocalcemia is the opposite of hypercalcemia. The Thymus  Thymitis is an inflammation of the thymus gland



thym means thymus, and -itis means inflammation

The Pancreas o An insulinoma is a benign tumor of the pancreas that causes hypoglycemia by secreting additional insulin o insulin means insulin, and -oma means tumor o Pancreatitis is an inflammation of the pancreas o pancreat means pancreas, and -itis means inflammation  A leading cause of pancreatitis is long-term alcohol abuse. Abnormal Blood Glucose Levels o Hyperglycemia is an abnormally high concentration of glucose in the blood o hyper- means excessive, glyc means sugar, and -emia means blood condition  Hyperglycemia is seen primarily in patients with diabetes mellitus. The symptoms include polydipsia, polyphagia, and polyuria. Hyperglycemia is the opposite of hypoglycemia. o Polydipsia is excessive thirst o poly- means many, and -dipsia means thirst o Polyphagia is excessive hunger o poly- means many, and -phagia means eating o Polyuria is excessive urination o poly- means many, and -uria means urination o Hyperinsulinism is the condition of excessive secretion of insulin in the bloodstream o hyper- means excessive, insulin means insulin, and -ism means condition.  Hyperinsulinism can cause hypoglycemia. o Hypoglycemia is an abnormally low concentration of glucose (sugar) in the blood o hypo- means deficient, glyc means sugar, and -emia means blood condition.  Symptoms include nervousness and shakiness, confusion, perspiration, or feeling anxious or weak. Hypoglycemia is the opposite of hyperglycemia.

Diabetes Mellitus Diabetes mellitus (DM), the most common endocrine system disease, is a group of metabolic disorders characterized by hyperglycemia resulting from defects in the body’s production of insulin (type 1) or its ability to use it properly (type 2). Diabetes mellitus is not related to diabetes insipidus. • These conditions are classified as type 1, type 2, and latent autoimmune diabetes in adults (type 1.5). • In the past, when a child developed diabetes, this condition was referred to as juvenile diabetes; however, the condition in children is now described as being either type 1 or type 2. • Some patients present with symptoms of both types of diabetes, and their treatment must be modified accordingly. The treatment goals for all types of diabetes are to effectively control blood glucose levels and prevent complications. • Metabolic syndrome is a common combination of medical conditions, including increased blood pressure, elevated levels of insulin in the blood, excess body fat around

the waist, or abnormal cholesterol levels. This syndrome increases the patient’s risk of heart disease, stroke, and type 2 diabetes. Type 1 Diabetes Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune insulin deficiency disorder caused by the destruction of pancreatic islet beta cells. Insulin deficiency means that the pancreatic beta cells do not secrete enough insulin. For more information about autoimmune disorders. • Symptoms of type 1 diabetes include polydipsia, polyphagia, polyuria, weight loss, blurred vision, extreme fatigue, and slow healing. • The onset of type 1 diabetes is often triggered by a viral infection. Treatment for type 1 diabetes involves a combination of diet, exercise and carefully regulated insulin replacement therapy administered by injection or insulin pump. Type 2 Diabetes Type 2 diabetes is an insulin resistance disorder. Insulin resistance means that insulin is being produced, but the body does not use it effectively. In an attempt to compensate for this lack of response, the body secretes more insulin. With the rise of childhood obesity, type 2 diabetes is increasingly common in children and young adults. Obese adults are also at high risk for this condition. • Prediabetes is a condition in which the blood glucose level is higher than normal, but not high enough to be classified as type 2 diabetes. However, this condition indicates an increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes, heart disease, and stroke. • A person with type 2 diabetes might be asymptomatic for years. Asymptomatic means showing no symptoms. When symptoms do occur, they include those of type 1 diabetes plus recurring infections, irritabilit...