Chapter 1-4 Research Methods Research Methods, Statistics, and Applications Second Edition by Kathrynn A. Adams (Author), Eva K. Lawrence (Author) PDF

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Chapter Summaries 1-4
Research Methods, Statistics, and Applications Second Edition
by Kathrynn A. Adams (Author), Eva K. Lawrence (Author)...

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Chapter 1 Research Methods: Thinking like a researcher Critical Thinking: o Heart of what it means to think like a researcher o One problem is that critical thinking is equated with criticism  Criticism can be one of the tools used in critical thinking, but simply being critical is not the same as thinking critically o Another problem is that critical thinking is equated with critical thinking skills  Skills alone are important but do not define critical thinking  Skills is what you have or gain.  Critical thinking is something you do o Critical thinking is an action that requires dynamic engagement with information or ideas. It involves carefully analyzing that information based on current knowledge, as opposed to relying on personal opinion or beliefs. Thinking Critically about Ethics o When researchers are planning their research study they must carefully consider the ethics of the study Ethics codes o An ethics code both guides ethical decision making and delineates the ethical standards that must be followed. o Current international and federal ethics codes for human research were created in response to some horrific research conducted in the name of science.  Two of the most infamous are the Nazi medical experiments  Tuskegee syphilis study. o As a result of all the horrible experiments performed in Nazi concentration camps the Nuremberg Code was created in 1947  The first code of conduct for research  In 1964, the principles of this code where updated and clarified in the Declaration of Helsinki- this is the international code for ethics in biomedical research  It states that the rights of the individual must take precedence and that individuals must give their consent, preferably in written form, to participate in biomedical research

o Because of the Tuskegee syphilis study and the violation of the past ethical code the Belmont Report was crafted as an act of ethical treatment of patients who participate in medical research in the U.S  The Belmont report serves as the basis for the current U.S Federal Policy of the protection of Human Subjects Unethical social psychology experiments o Milligram’s obedience study (shocks)  People believed they were inflicting pain  Caused emotional stress o Pa r t i c i p a n t si nZi mb a r d o ’ s

 Prison experiment  Guards started to exhibit cruel behaviors o Even though the experiments were cruel they did help us understand social phenomena Ethical Principles o Ethical principles are moral values and ideals o They do not explain how to behave but are guidelines in ethical decision making o Discipline ethics for Psych: APA Ethical Standards o Are specific rules or obligations that promote the ethical principles. o The ethical standards for research with humans address:  Informed consent  Appropriate use of deception and incentives  Confidentiality Informed consent o If we want to treat people with respect we should study them without informed consent o Informed consent: An ethical standard by which potential paritcapoant are informed if the topic, procedures, risks, and benefits of participation prior to consenting to participate o There are few instances in which researcher may dispense of informed consent:

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 Such as when the study involves observations in natural and public situations and the participants cannot later be identified. Once you start manipulating situations, interacting with participants, making audio or visual recordings of participants, or asking them to complete questionnaires, informed consent is almost always necessary Informed consent implies that potential participants have a clear understanding of what the study is about, who is conducting the research, what they are being asked to do, how long it will take, and benefits and risks of participation before becoming part of a study. Participants should also know that they can withdraw or decline from the study at any point they want It may be given verbally but it is better to obtain written consent Informed consent should include the following information 1. The purpose of the research or topic of study 2. What participants will do and how long it will take 3. Possible benefits of participation, including any incentives provided by the researchers 4. Any potential risks to participation, including physical or emotional pain or discomfort as well as any risks to confidentiality 5. Steps that will be taken to safeguard the participants’ confidentiality 6. The right to decline to participate and the right to withdraw from the study after it begins 7. Verification that declining or withdrawing will not negatively impact the participants and they will still receive any incentives promised by the researcher 8. The names and contact information of the researchers and supervisors 9. A place for the participant (and legal guardian of the participant, if applicable) to sign and date the form, thus giving their informed consent for participation

o It simple and anonymous questionnaire and involves compensating participants o What if you wanted to assess participants’ natural responses to situations?  Thus, researchers must determine how informed the consent must be in order for the study to both be ethical and yield meaningful results. o During the consent you do not need to disclose specific details

Deception o when the intention is to mislead or downright lie to participants o there are two primary arguments against deception 1. First, deception may harm participants by embarrassing them, making them feel uncomfortable, or leading them to mistrust others 2. Second, deception may harm the field by increasing suspicion of research and decreasing the integrity of the individual researcher and the entire research community o In addition, deception may invalidate research results even in studies that to not use deception o if you decide to use deception, special care must be taken to minimize potential harm to the participants and to the integrity of the field. You may also want to check to see if some of your participants suspected the deception and consider if that suspicion impacted your results o For example, the APA ethics code (2010a) specifies that deception is allowable under the following conditions: 1.The use of deception is necessary and justifiable given the potential benefits of the study. 2. The study is not expected to cause any physical pain or significant emotional distress. 3.The researchers debrief participants as soon as possible regarding the deception. Debriefing o if the study involves any risk or deception, the researcher should include a debriefing in order to reduce or mitigate any longer-term effects on the participants. o In most cases, debriefing occurs right after the participant completes the study. o This is especially important when participation might result in physical or emotional distress because discussing the study immediately afterwards

can help assess and reduce the distress, and the researchers can identify an appropriate follow-up plan for those who may need additional help. Incentives for Participants o Researcher sometimes offer incentives in order to recruit participants o The challenge is that an incentive can be coercive.  If you have to talk about your sex life but you feel uncomfortable but you need the money o potential for coercion will depend on the participants’ economic and cultural contexts. Additionally, paying participants for their time might lead them to believe that they must complete the study in order to receive payment. o The incentive is for the participant to show up to not complete the study o Guidelines  Researchers should carefully consider who their potential participants are and not offer incentives that they would have a difficult time refusing.  The incentive should not be contingent on the participant completing the study. Confidentiality o Confidentiality occurs when responses and results from an individual participant are private. Keep in mind that confidentiality does not imply anonymity. o Anonymity occurs when it is impossible for anyone, including the researcher, to link a participant to his or her data. Anonymity is not feasible when a researcher is planning to test participants at several time points or match participants’ self-report with other information such as school or court records (with the appropriate consent, of course) The Scientific approach o Thes c i e n t i fica p p r o a c hi sas p e c i fict y p eo fc r i t i c a lt h i n ki n gt ha ti n v o l v e sa pp r o a c h i n ga t o p i cwi t hag e n u i n ed e s i r et ou nd e r s t a n di t ,i d e n t i f y i n ga n dmi n i mi z i n gb i a s e st h a t i n t e r f e r ewi t ht h i su n de r s t a n d i n g ,a v oi d i n go v e r l ys i mp l i s t i ce x p l a n a t i o n s ,a n df ol l o wi n ga s y s t e ma t i cme t h odt os t u d yt h et o p i c .

o One reason we might take a scientific approach is that it can help us make better decisions, both individually and as a society. The social sciences were actually formed to improve human welfare and influence social change. The Scientific Approach and Knowledge. o Still, the scientific approach can be used to build our knowledge base, improve or refute theories, and develop new ideas o A professor who discovers plagiarism may take a scientific approach in order to better understand the reasons behind academic dishonesty. That professor might dig a little deeper and try to discover knowledge and beliefs that students have about plagiarism, in what situations students are more or less likely to plagiarize, and what strategies are most effective in preventing plagiarism The scientific Method: Defined and Refinded o In order to investigate questions such as how our brain works scientifically, one must use the scientific method. o Sci e n c ei sa b o utp r o c e s s .Th ep r o c e s s e so fs c i e nc ea r er e f e r r e dt oa st h es c i e n t i ficme t h od —a n dme t h o di swh a tma k e ss o me t hi n gas c i e nc e .

o It’s a cycle Overview of the research Process AKA the scientific method 1. Identify your topic 2. Find, read, and evaluate Past Research (crucial step) 3. Further Refine your topic and develop a Hypthesis  When you have a good handle on what past research has found, you will want to develop a testable hypothesis that is based on this research.  is means that a hypothesis is a prediction based on past research. A testable hypothesis means that it can be disproven 4. Choose a Research Design  There are three basic steps of research design: descriptive, correlation, experimental  A single study may have multiple hypotheses that are tested with one or more of these designs.  The type of design depends largely on the goal of the research

 Experi me nt alr e s e a r c he x a mi n e st h er e l a t i o n s h i pb e t we e nt woo rmo r ev a r i a b l e s a n d ,i fp r o p e r l yc o n d u c t e d ,c a nd e mo n s t r a t ec a us a t i o n  Ane x p e r i me n tr e q u i r e st h a t : i. The experimenter systematically manipulates the independent variable (IV). ii. The experimenter randomly assigns participants to receive different levels of the IV. iii. The experimenter measures the effect of the IV manipulation on the dependent variable (DV). 5. Plan and carry out your study  You are more likely to have your study reviewed by the institutional review board i. It reviews research to see if it has merit and therefore, the research is justified 6. Analyze data 7. Communicate Results

Chapter 2: Build a solid foundation for your study based on the past

Ty pe so fSo ur c e s Pr i ma r yv e r s uss e c onda r ys our c e o ap r i ma r ys o u r c ei st h eon ec l o s e s tt ot h eo r i g i n a ls o u r c eofi n f o r ma t i o n , wh e r e a sas e c o nd a r ys o u r c ei sa tl e a s to n es t e pr e mo v e df r o mt h eo r i g i n a l s o u r c eo fi n f o r ma t i o n o t h eo r i g i n a ls o u r c eo fi n f o r ma t i o ni nt h es o c i a la n db e h a v i o r a ls c i e n c e si sa r e s e a r c hs t u d y o Toas o c i a lo rbe h a v i o r a ls c i e n t i s t ,apr i ma r yr e s e a r c hs o ur c ei sar e p o r to f ar e s e a r c hs t u d yi nwh i c hd a t awe r ec o l l e c t e da n da n a l y z e d o s e c o nda r yr e s e a r c hs o ur c ei sar e v i e wo rd i s c u s s i ono fp r e v i o usr e s e a r c h t h a td o e sno ti n c l ud ear e p o r to na no r i g i n a lr e s e a r c hs t u d y Sc ho l a r l yVe r s usPo pul a rs our c e s o As c ho l a r l ywo r kc a nb eap r i ma r yo rs e c o n d a r ys o u r c ea n dmu s tme e ta l lo f t h ef o l l o wi n gc r i t e r i a :

 The goal of the work is to advance knowledge and scientific study in the field.  The author(s) have expertise in the field.  The work is written for an audience with knowledge in the field, as opposed to the general public.  The work builds on other sources that meet the above criteria for scholarly works, and these sources are clearly cited. o Po pul a rwo r ksa r et h o s et h a ts e r v et oe d u c a t eo re n t e r t a i nag e n e r a l a u d i e n c et h a ti nc l ud e st h os ewi t h o u ts p e c i a l i z e dt r a i n i n go re x p e r t i s ei nt h e fie l d  Ps y c h ol o g yt o d a y ,a n ds c i e n t i ficAme r i c a  Ca np r o vi d eb a s i ci n f o r ma t i o na b o u tat o p i c  Bu twed on o tu s et h e s ef o rd e v e l op i n gr e s e a r c h Types of scholarly works Articles in academic journals o Journal of applied psychology o Journals are specialized and only post articles that align with their content and scope o Fi n a l l y ,mos tj o u r n a l se mp l o yap e e rr e v i e wp r o c e s si no r de rt oe n s u r et h a t t h e yp u b l i s ho n l ya r t i c l e st h a ta r eo fh i g hq u a l i t ya n dh e l pt oa d v a n c e s c h o l a r s h i pi nt hefie l d . Peer Review Process o i n v o l v e se v a l u a t i o no ft h ewo r kb yo t h e re x p e r t si nt h efie l d an expert makes an initial d e c i s i o no nwh e t h e rt h ea r t i c l ei sa n a p p r o p r i a t efitf o rt h ej o u r n a la n do fh i g he n o u g hq u a l i t yt owa r r a n tf u r t h e r e x a mi n a t i o n . o d e c i s i o no nwh e t h e rt h ea r t i c l ei sa na p p r o p r i a t efitf o rt h ej o u r n a la n do f h i g he n o u ghq u a l i t yt owa r r a n tf u r t h e re x a mi n a t i o n . o Almost all articles have gone through several revisions Academic Journals publish both primary and secondary sources o Ont hec o n t r a r y ,j o u r n a la r t i c l e sc a nbee i t he rpr i ma r yo rs e c o n d a r ys o u r c e s . I nf a c t ,s e v e r a lh i g h q ua l i t yj o u r n a l s ,s uc ha sPs y c h o l o g i c a lBu l l e t i n ,on l y p u b l i s hs e c o nd a r yr e s e a r c ha r t i c l e s .

Primary Sources in Academic Journals o Wh a ti ss o me t i me sc o n f u s i n gt os t u de nt si st h a tap r i ma r yr e s e a r c ha r t i c l e t y p i c a l l yp r o v i d e sas u mma r yo fpa s tr e s e a r c h ,j us ta ss e c o n da r ys o u r c e sd o . o Th ed i ffe r e n c ei st h a tap r i ma r yr e s e a r c ha r t i c l ewi l la l s oi n c l u d ed e t a i l s a b o u tt h eme t h o da ndr e s u l t so fa tl e a s ton es t u d yt h a twa sc o n d u c t e db yt h e a r t i c l ea u t ho r ( s ) .So mep r i ma r yr e s e a r c ha r t i c l e sr e p o r tt h eme t h o da n d r e s u l t so fmu l t i p l er e l a t e ds t u d i e s . o h ed e s i gnd e s c r i be di nap r i ma r yr e s e a r c ha r t i c l ema yb ed e s c r i p t i v e , c o r r e l a t i o n a l ,e x p e r i me n t a l ,o rac o mb i na t i ono ft h e s e Secondary Sources in Academic Journals o j o u r n a l sa r el i t e r a t u r er e v i e wsa n dme t a a n a l y s e s . o Al i t e r a t ur er e v i e ws u mma r i z e st h efin d i n g so fma n ypr i ma r yr e s e a r c h a r t i c l e sb u td o e sn o tr e p o r tt heme t h odo rr e s u l t so fa no r i g i na ls t ud y o Ame t aa na l y s i si samo r es t a t i s t i c a l l ys op h i s t i c a t e dv e r s i o no fal i t e r a t u r e r e v i e wi nt h a tame t a a n a l y s i su s e st h es t a t i s t i c a lr e s u l t sa n ds a mp l es i z e so f p a s ts t u d i e st os y n t h e s i z er e s u l t s .  `does not report the methods or results of a new study and is therefore, considered a secondary source o On c ei nawh i l ey o uwi l lr u na c r o s sac omme n t a r yi na na c a d e mi c j o u r n a l .Co mme nt a r i e sa r eb r i e fr e s p on s e sa b o u tap u bl i s he da r t i c l et h a t u s u a l l yi n v o l v eac r i t i q u eo fas t u d yo rr e v i e w. Other type of scholarly work Conference papers or posters o Pr o f e s s i o n a lc on f e r e n c e sp r o v i d eaf o r u mf o rr e s e a r c h e r st op r e s e n tt h e i r s c h o l a r l ywo r k( b o t hpr i ma r ya nds e c o n d a r y )i nt h ef o r mo fap a pe rorp o s t e r p r e s e n t a t i o n Unpublished Manuscripts o Un p u b l i s h e dma n us c r i p t si n c l u d ea r t i c l e st h a tha v ebe e na c c e p t e df o r p u b l i c a t i oni na na c a d e mi cj o u r n a lb u ta r en o ty e tp u b l i s h e d( i np r e s s ) ,a r e c u r r e nt l yu n d e rr e v i e wf o rp u b l i c a t i o n,h a v en o tb e e ns ub mi t t e df o r p u b l i c a t i on ,o rwe r er e j e c t e df r o ma na c a d e mi cj o u r n a l . Scholarly Books o Sc h o l a r l yb o o k sa r ewr i t t e nb ye x p e r t si nt h efie l da n da r et y p i c a l l y p u b l i s h e db yp r o f e s s i o n a lo r g a n i z a t i o n so ru n i v e r s i t i e s .On ei mp o r t a n t

i n d i c a t o ro fas c h o l a r l ybo o ki st h a tt h ec o n t e n ti sb a s e do np a s tr e s e a r c ht h a t i sc l e a r l yc i t e d Undergraduate Research Abstracts o Ab s t r a c t sa r eo n e pa r a g r a p hs u mma r i e so fs c h ol a r l ywo r k s .Th e ya r en o t c o mpl e t ewo r k s ,b u tr a t h e rp a r to fac o n f e r e n c ep r e s e n t a t i ono rr e s e a r c h a r t i c l e o Easy to find online and very brief Strategies to identify and find past research Searching library databases by topic o Se a r c hi n go n l i n ed a t a b a s e st h r o u g hy o urc o l l e g eo ru n i v e r s i t yl i b r a r ys y s t e m i st h emo s te ffic i e n ta n de ffe c t i v ewa yt oi d e n t i f yp a s tr e s e a r c ho nat o p i c Identify the appropriate database to search o Find more than one database to get your articles Conducting database research Keyword searches Start broad Use one source to find others Search by Author Search by relevant journals Google scholar and other internet searches ( not the best tool if you are at the beginning stages Find the full test or a Soure Organization of Primary research articles o Mo s tpu b l i s h e dp r i ma r yr e s e a r c ha r t i c l e swi l lb eo r g a n i z e di nt h i so r d e r : Ti t l e ,Au t h o r sa n dAffil i a t i o n ,Ab s t r a c t ,I n t r o d u c t i o n ,Me t h o d ,Re s u l t s , Di s c u s s i o n ,a n dRe f e r e n c e s o Ap r i ma r yr e s e a r c ha r t i c l ec o n t a i n sa l lt he s es e c t i o n s ,b u ts e c o n d a r ys o u r c e s ma yo rma yn o th a v es e v e r a lo ra l lo ft h e s es e c t i o ns . o Types of information you will find in a primary research article  Title: Closing the Social Class Achievement Gap for First-Generation Students in Undergraduate Biology  Authors: Harackiewicz, Canning, Tibbetts, Giffen, Blair, Rouse, and Hyde (or Harackiewicz et al., with “et al.” indicating “and others”)  Publication year: 2014

 Source: Journal of Educational Psychology Title o Th et i t l ei sab r i e fde s c r i p t i ono ft h es t u d ya n dwi l lu s u a l l yi n c l u d et h ek e y v a r i a b l e se x a mi n e di nt h es t u d y . Authors o Th ea u t h o r sa r et y p i c a l l yl i s t e dr i g hta f t e rt h et i t l e .I ft h e r ea r emul t i p l e a u t h o r s ,t hea u t h o rl i s ti su s u a l l yo r g a n i z e db yt h ed e g r e ee a c hc o n t r i b u t e d , wi t ht h efir s ta u t h o ra st h ep e r s o nwh owa smo s tr e s p o n s i b l ef o rt hewo r k . Abstract o Th ea b s t r a c ti sao n e p a r a g r a p hs u mma r yo ft h ee n t i r ea r t i c l ...