Chapter 1 - Lecture notes 1-4 PDF

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Forensic Science: The application of science to criminal and civil law (broadest definition). Forensic science owes its origin to individuals such as Bertillion, Galton, Lattes, Goddard, Osborn, and Locard, who developed the principals and techniques needed to identify or compare physical evidence ! Forensics: Can be used for fields like forensic scientists, forensics accountants, forensics debaters, exc.! The fictional exploits Sherlock Holmes excited the imagination of an emerging generation of forensic scientists and criminal investigators! We do not use the word “match”, instead we use “failed to exclude this individual” when taking about our findings in order to try to reverse the bias Sir Francis Galton: - Charles Dawin nephew! - Published a book on the first formal method for classifying fingerprints, which is still use today ! - Also liked to measure people ! - Promoted that only certain people should reproduce together, to make a superior race (eugenics) — so he has some negativity tied to him towards eugenics field of work ! Sir Edwars Henry (1869) - Expands the fingerprint classification system and uses to identify criminals ! Thomas Jennings (1910) - The first person convicted due to fingerprint evidence ! Los Angeles Polics Chief (1923): - August Vollmer establishes the first forensic laboratory ! 1966:!

- Brian J. Cilliford and Brain Wraxall developed the immunoelectrophoretic technique for haptoglobin typing in bloodstains, it is a relatively simple technique and cheaper than DNA analysis ! Mathieu Orfila: The father of forensic toxicology ! Alphonse Bertillion: Devised the first scientific system of personal identification in 1879. Leon Lattes: Developed a procedure to determine blood type from dried bloodstains (Now we only do DNA analysis than a blood type analysis)! Calvin Goddard: Used a comparison microscope to determine if a particular gun fired a bullet — an indispensable tool of firearms ! Albert Osborn: Developed the fundamental principal of document examination ! Walter McCrone: Utilized microscopy and other analytical methodologies to examine evidence !

Hans Gross: Wrote the first treatise describing the application of scientific principals to the field of criminal investigation ! Edmond Locard: Incorporate Gross’ principal within the first workable crime laboratory, in Lyons, France! Locard’s Theory of Exchange: A theory of evidence transfer developed in 1920 by French criminalist Dr. Edmond Locard stating that “every contact leaves a trace. Every time one object comes in contact with another object, it takes something from that object or leaves something behind.”…..D2L AS WELL August Vollmer: In 1923 he established the fist US crime laboratory through the LA PD US Crime Lab: - The state of California is an excellent example of a geographical area in the US that has created a system on integrated regional and satellite laboratories! - The ever increasing number of crime laboratories is partly the result of the Supreme Court decisions in the 1960s, as they made it responsible for police to place greater emphasis on scientifically evaluated evidence.! - Crime laboratories inundated with drug specimens was due to the accelerated drug abuse in the 50’s, making drugs an important factor in the recent explosion of crime lab services in the US! - The development of crime laboratories in the United States has been characterized by rapid growth accompanied by a lack of national and regional planning and coordination — there are some not so great labs! - At present, approximately 411 public crime laboratories operate at various levels of government—federal, state, county/LOCAL, and municipal! - US Crime labs are primarily independent! - Great Britain crime labs are regional. Great Britain employed a free for they government operated crime laboratories. However, in 2010 established private labs put the government operated labs out of business! Every Crime Lab should be Accreditation (set standards), about every 5 years.

Technical Support: - The technical support provided by crime laboratories can be assigned to five basic services.!

1. Physical Science Unit incorporates the principles of chemistry, physics, and geology to identify and compare physical evidence! 2. Biology Unit applies the knowledge of biological sciences in order to investigate blood samples, body fluids, hair, and fiber samples. ! 3. Firearms Unit investigates discharged bullets, cartridge cases, shotgun shells, and ammunition.! 4. Document Unit provides the skills needed for handwriting analysis and other questioneddocument issues! 5. Photographic Unit applies specialized photographic techniques for recording and examining physical evidence. Some crime laboratories may offer a number of optional services. However, not always a photography unit ! Optional Services by Full-Service Labs - Toxicology Unit examines body fluids and organs for the presence of drugs and poisons! - Latent Fingerprint Unit processes and examines evidence for latent fingerprints.! - Polygraph Unit conducts polygraph or lie detector tests! - Voiceprint Analysis Unit attempts to tie a recorded voice to a particular suspect. ! - Evidence-Collection Unit dispatches specially trained personnel to the crime scene to collect and preserve physical evidence! Crime Scene Investigation Unit: Dispatches trained personnel to the scene of a crime to retrieve evidence for laboratory examination Analyzing Physical Evidence Requires Utilizing the Scientific Method The Scientific Method: - Formulate a question worthy of investigation! - Formulate a reasonable hypothesis to answer the question! - Test the hypothesis through experimentation. ! - Upon validation of the hypothesis, it become suitable as scientific evidence! Skills of a Forensic Scientist - A forensic scientist must be skilled in applying the principles and techniques of the physical and natural sciences to the analysis of the many types of evidence that may be recovered during a criminal investigation! - A forensic scientist may also provide expert court testimony ! - See letter of opinion document, which gives a case history/ synopsis ! - An expert witness is an individual whom the court determines possesses knowledge relevant to the trial that is not expected of the average person! - The expert witness is called on to evaluate evidence based on specialized training and experience that the court lacks the expertise to do. ! - The expert will then express an opinion as to the significance of the findings! - The necessity for the forensic scientist to appear in court has been imposed on the criminal justice system by the case of Melendez-Diaz v. Massachusetts — evidence submitted without in-person expert testimony was not admissible in court! The Frye Standard: - The Frye v. United States decision set guidelines for determining the admissibility of scientific evidence into the courtroom! - To meet the Frye standard, the evidence in question must be “generally accepted” by the scientific community.!

- However, in the 1993 case of Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceutical, Inc., the U.S. Supreme Court asserted that the Frye standard is not an absolute prerequisite to the admissibility of scientific evidence. Trial judges were said to be ultimately responsible as “gatekeepers” for the admissibility and validity of scientific evidence presented in their courts, as well as all expert testimony (seen in Kumho Tire Co. vs. Carmitchel) .! Expert Witness: A person who is permitted to testify at a trial because of special knowledge or proficiency in a particular field that is relevant to the case. Qualifications come from training, education and experience. Their overall demeanour may decide the weight their testimony holds in court. An expert witness cannot provide 100% certainty to the court ! The Daubert Criteria: - In Daubert, the Supreme Court offered some guidelines as to how a judge can gauge scientific evidence:! - Whether the scientific technique or theory can be (and has been) tested! - Whether the technique or theory has been subject to peer review and publication.! - The technique’s potential rate of error! - Existence and maintenance of standards controlling the technique’s operation.! - Whether the scientific theory or method has attracted widespread acceptance within a relevant scientific community.! Special Forensic Science Services: - A number of special forensic science services are available to the law enforcement community to augment the services of the crime laboratory.! - These services include forensic psychiatry, forensic odontology, computer science, and forensic engineering.! Forensic Psychiatry: is an area in which the relationship between human behaviour and legal proceedings is examined.! Forensic Odontology: involves using teeth to provide information about the identification of victims when a body is left in an unrecognizable state; also investigates bite marks.! Forensic Engineering: is concerned with failure analysis, accident reconstruction, and causes and origins of fires or explosions.! Forensic Computer Science: involves the examination of digital evidence.! Evidence Collection Training: - Many crime laboratories have “evidence technicians,” trained by the crime lab staff, on 24hour call for evidence collection at crime scenes.! - Training ensures all pertinent evidence will be recognized and collected properly! - Where no formal training exists, familiarity can be gained through lectures, tours of the lab, and evidence collection manuals! Drug Chemistry: Determining the identity of an unknown chemical Trace Evidence: Trace evidence is a very small piece of evidence left at a crime scene, that may be used to identify or link a suspect to a crime, this will not be sufficient on its own but will help corroborate other evidence • Glass!

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Paint! Soil! Vehicle Lights! Hair!

Hair and Fibre Analysis: • Microscopic examinations! • Hairs indicate possible associations -- not identity! • CIRCUMSTANTIAL! • May be able to do DNA analysis on hairs to determine the source! • May be able to do some species determinations! Colorado Bureau of Investigation (CBI): - CBI was established in 1967 to provide assistance to local law enforcement agencies.! - Today they provide assistance to municipal, county, state and federal agencies.! - The CBI labs are legislatively funded, and our services are provided at no charge to requesting law enforcement agencies.! - Divided into two sections: investigations and laboratory! - What Does a CBI Agent Do?! - Laboratory analysis and reporting of results! - Crime scene investigation and response! - Testimony for both analytical work and crime scenes!

Potential Soil Sources: • Shoes! • Clothing! • Tools! • Vehicles (inside and out)!

Testimony: - Criminal proceedings in federal, state, county, district, and municipal jurisdictions! - Civil (evidence was initially submitted during a criminal investigation)! - May be called by either prosecution or defence...