Chapter 1 - Notes PDF

Preview

Summary

chapter summary notes...

Description

1.1 The Need for Psychological Science 1.1 How does our everyday thinking sometimes lead us to a wrong conclusion? Intuition: an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit reasoning.     

Conscious & unconscious thinking We often underestimate intuitions perils Studies show people overestimate their lie detection accuracy, their eyewitness assessments, etc… Novelist Madeleine L’Engle, “The naked intellect is an extraordinary inaccurate instrument” (1973) Three phenomena – hindsight bias, overconfidence, and our tendency to perceive patterns in random events – illustrate why we cannot rely solely on intuition on common sense.

Did We Know It All Along? Hindsight Bias “Life is lived forwards, but understood backwards.” Philosopher Soren Kierkegaard, 1813-1855 Hindsight Bias: the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.)   

When opposite findings both seem like common sense, there is a problem. Such errors in our recollections and explanations show why we need psychological research. Common sense more easily describes what has happened than what will happen.

Overconfidence 

We humans tend to think we know more than we do.

Perceiving Order in Random Events 

We perceive patterns – trying to make sense of our world

The point to remember: Hindsight bias, overconfidence, and our tendency to perceive patterns in random events often lead us to overestimate our intuition. But scientific inquiry can help us sift reality from illusion.

The Scientific Attitude: Curious, Skeptical, and Humble 1.2 How do the scientific attitude’s three main components relate to critical thinking?   

Let the facts speak for themselves To sift reality from fantasy, sense from nonsense, therefore requires a scientific attitude: being skeptical but not cynical, open but not gullible. Psychologists approach the world of behavior with curious skepticism, persistently asking two questions: What do you mean? How do you know?



Skeptical testing can help reveal facts

Putting a scientific attitude into practice requires not only curiosity and skepticism but also humility—an awareness of our own vulnerability to error and an openness to surprises and new perspectives. In the last analysis, what matters is not my opinion or yours, but the truths nature reveals in response to our questioning.

Critical Thinking Critical thinking: thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.  

Smart thinking, called critical thinking, examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions. Ask questions

The scientific attitude combines (1) curiosity about the world around us, (2) skepticism about unproven claims and ideas, and (3) humility about one’s own understanding. Evaluating evidence, assessing conclusions, and examining our own assumptions are essential parts of critical thinking.

REVIEW – The Need for Psychological Science

LEARNING OBJECTVES RETRIEVAL PRACTICE1-1: Our everyday thinking sometimes leads us to the wrong conclusion because by using our common sense we often are overconfident with the way we perceive predicaments. 1-2: Scientific attitudes three main components relate to critical thinking because it combines our curiosity of the world around us our skepticism of unproven ideas and the humility we have of one owns understanding of these findings. All three parts of the scientific attitude are essential parts of critical thinking.

1.2 Research Strategies: How Psychologist Ask and Answer Questions PSYCHOLOGISTS ARM THEIR SCIENTIFIC ATTITUDE with the scientific method—a self-correcting process ideas with observationscience? and analysis. In its attempt to describe and explain 1.3 Howfor doevaluating theories advance psychological human nature, psychological science welcomes hunches and plausible-sounding theories. And it puts them to the test. If a theory works—if the data support its predictions—so much the better for that theory. The Scientific MethodIf the predictions fail, the theory will be revised or rejected.

1.3 How do theories advance psychological science? Theory: an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.    

Theory explains behaviors or events by offering ideas that organize what we have observed. Organize isolated facts, simplifying the theory. A theory offers a useful summary of facts & principles A good theory produces testable predictions – hypotheses.

The scientific method: A self-correcting process for asking questions and observing nature’s answers.    

Theories can bias observations. Psychologists report their research with precise operational definitions of procedures & concepts. By carefully wording your reports others can observe & replicate the original observations with different participants, materials, and circumstances. If other clinicians get equivalent results, confidence in the finding’s reliability grows.

Operational definitions: a carefully worded statement of the exact procedure (operations) used in a research study. Replicate: repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.  

Replication is conformation. Replication enables scientific self-correction.

In the end, our theory will be useful if it (1) organizes a range of self-reports and observations, and (2) implies predictions that anyone can use to check the theory or to derive practical applications. Eventually, our research may (3) stimulate further research that leads to a revised theory that better organizes and predicts what we know.

 

Testing hypotheses and refining theories is the next step. Using descriptive methods, correlational methods, and experimental methods – allows us to think critically, we need to understand these methods and know what conclusions they allow.

Descriptive Methods: which describe behaviors, often through case studies, surveys, or naturalistic observations. Correlational Methods: which associates numerous factors. Experimental Methods: which manipulate factors to discover their effects.

REVIEW- Research Strategies: How Psychologist Ask and Answer Questions

Retrieval PracticeA good theory allows psychologists to get excited about a popular claim and test it themselves with their own variables. Allowing growth & gain for that theory. Replication is important because the more times a claim is studied & tested the more we learn.

Description 1-4 How do psychologist use case studies, naturalistic observations, and surveys to observe and describe behavior, and why is random sampling important?  

The starting point of any science is description. Professional psychologist observe & describe people, objectively & systematically drawing conclusions about why they act as they do.

Case Studies: in-depth analyses of individuals or group. Naturalistic Observations: watching and recording the natural behavior of many individuals. Surveys & Interviews: asking people questions. The Case Study     

Among one of the oldest research methods. Case study examines one individual or group in depth in the hope of revealing things true of us all. By showing us what can happen, often allowing paths for further study. Unrepresentative information can lea to mistaken judgements & false conclusions. Case studies involve only one individual or group, so we can’t know for sure whether the principles observed would apply to a larger population.

The point to remember: Individual cases can suggest fruitful ideas. What’s true of all of us can be glimpsed in any one of us. But to discern the general truths that cover individual cases, we must answer questions with other research methods. Naturalistic Observation     

A descriptive method records behavior in natural environments. Ranging from watching animals in their natural habitat, to videotaping & analyzing parent-child interactions in diverse cultures, to recording racial differences in students. Considered “small science” – science that can be done with only pen & paper. Modern technologies are expanding naturalistic observations – using tools, researchers can track willing volunteers (location, activities, opinions) without interference. Similar to case studies, naturalistic observations describe behavior, not explain it.

The Survey

Unrepresentative sample: survey group that does not represent the population being studied. Random sampling helps researchers form a representative sample, because each member of the population has an equal chance of being included.   



A survey looks at many cases in less depth. Asking the survey questions can be tricky, and the answers often depend on how the questions are word & respondents who are chosen. Wording Effectso Subtle changes in the order or wording of questions can have major effects. o Wording is critical o Critical thinkers will reflect on how the phrasing of a question might affect peoples’ expressed opinions. Random Samplingo We generalize from samples we observe. o You want to obtain a representative sample – the more random the better.

The point to remember: Before accepting survey findings, think critically. Consider the sample. The best basis for generalizing is from a representative sample. You cannot compensate for an unrepresentative sample by simply adding more people. Correlation 1-5 What does it mean we say two things are correlated, and what are positive and negative correlations? Correlate: a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other. Correlation Coefficient: a statistical index of the relationship between two things.

     

Describing behavior is a first toward predicting it. Naturalistic observations & surveys show how one trait or behavior are related to one another. Using the statistical measure of the correlation coefficient helps us figure how closely two things vary together, and thus how well either one predicts the other. Scatterplots can be useful to showcase the values of two variables and how they correlate to one another. A correlation is positive if two sets of scores, such as height & weight, tend to rise or fall together. Correlation as a negative if two sets of scores relate inversely, one set going up as the other goes down.

The point to remember: A correlation coefficient helps us see the world more clearly by Regression the Mean revealingToward the extent to which two things relate.

1-6 What is regression toward the mean?

Regression toward the mean: the tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the average. Correlation makes relationships visible in places we might just miss. Believing there is a relationship between two things we’re more likely to notice & recall instances that confirm belief. The illusion that uncontrollable events correlate with our actions are fed by a statistical phenomenon called regression toward the mean. Average results are more typical then extreme results.

   

“Once you become sensitized to it, you see regression everywhere.” – Psychologist Daniel Kahneman The point to remember: When a fluctuating behavior returns to normal, there is no need to invent fancy explanations for why it does so. Regression toward the mean is probably at work.

Correlation and Causation 1-7 Why do correlations enable predictions but not cause-effect explanations? Correlations do not come with built-in cause-effect arrows. Correlations help us predict. A nearly irresistible thinking error is assuming that an association, sometimes presented as a correlation coefficient, proves causation. But no matter how strong the relationship, it does not.

  

The point to remember (turn the volume up here): Correlation does not prove causation.3 Correlation indicates the possibility of a cause-effect relationship but does not prove such. Remember this principle and you will be wiser as you read and hear news of scientific studies. 3.

This maxim is true not only of correlations, but also of associations verified by other nonexperimental statistics. So, w could also say, association does not prove causation.

Experimentation 1-8 What are the characteristics of experimentation that make it possible to isolate cause and effect? Experiment: a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors 

Experiments allow researchers to isolate the effects of one or more factors by (1) manipulating the factors of interest and (2) holding constant (“controlling”) other factors.

Experimental group: in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

Control group: in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

   

Researchers create an experimental group, in which people receive treatment. Researchers also create a contrasting controlled group that does not receive treatment. Researchers randomly assign people to each group to minimize any preexisting differences. No single experiment is conclusive.

The point to remember: Unlike correlational studies, which uncover naturally occurring relationships, an experiment manipulates a factor to determine its effect. Double-blind procedure: an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies. Placebo [pluh-SEE-bo; Latin for “I shall please”] effect: experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent. 

To know how effective a therapy really is, researchers must control for a possible placebo effect.

Independent and Dependent Variables  

Some simple experiments manipulating just one factor are called the independent variable because we can vary it independently of other factors. Other factors, which can potentially influence the results of the results of the experiment, are called confounding variables.

Independent variable: in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied. Confounding variable: in an experiment, a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect. Dependent variable: in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated. 

   

Experiments examine the effect of one or more independent variables on some measurable behavior, called the dependent variable because it can vary depending on what takes place during the experiment. Both variables are given precise operational definitions, which specify the procedure that manipulate the independent variable or measure the dependent variable. These definitions answer the “what do you mean?” question with a level of precision that enables other to repeat the study. A variable is anything that can vary Experiments aim to manipulate an independent variable, measure a dependent variable, and control confounding variables.

 

An experiment has at least two different conditions: an experimental condition and a comparison or control condition. Random assignment works to minimize preexisting differences between the groups before any treatment effects occur.

RETRIEVAL PRACTICEThe independent variable of the rental housing experiments was the difference of landlord’s names. The dependent variable of the rental housing experiments was they all receive the same letter to respond too, the response rate was then recorded. When testing a new drug to control blood pressure’s effectiveness, one group receives the actual drug and the other the placebo pill. The reason being the controlled group which received the placebo pill is what researchers compared their experimental group who received the actual drug to see the difference between the groups – which is why the drug is only given to half of the participants.

Predicting Real Behavior 1-9 Can laboratory experiments illuminate everyday life?   

The experimenter intends the lab environment to be a simplified reality. Lab experiments let psychologist re-create psychological forces under controlled conditions. An experiment’s purpose is not to re-create the exact behaviors of everyday life but to test theoretical principles (Mook, 1983).

It is the resulting principles – not the specific findings – that help explain everyday behaviors. The point to remember: Psychological science focuses less on particular behaviors than on seeking general principles that help explain many behaviors. Psychology’s Research Ethics

1-10 Why do psychologists study animals, and what ethical guidelines safeguard human and animal research participants? How do human values influence psychology? Protecting Research Participants    



Humans are not like animals; we are animals. The animal protection movement protests the use of animals in psychological, biological, and medical research. British Psychological Society (BSP) guidelines call for housing animals under reasonable natural living conditions, with companions for social animals. American Psychological Association (APA) guidelines state that researchers must ensure the “comfort, health, and humane treatment” of animals and minimize “infection, illness, and pain” (APA, 2002). The European Parliament mandates standards for animal care and housing (Vogel, 2010).

“We cannot defend our scientific work with animals on the basis of the similarities between them and ourselves and then defend it morally on the basis of differences,” noted Roger Ulrich (1991). 

The ethics codes of the APA and Britain’s BPS urge researchers to (1) obtain potential participants’ informed consent before the experiment, (2) protect them from harm and discomfort, (3) keep information about individual participants confidential, and (4) fully debrief people (explain the research afterward). University ethics committees use these guidelines to screen research proposals and safeguard participants’ well-being.

Informed consent: giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate. Debriefing: the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants. Values in Research    

Psychology is not value free. Values affect what we study, how we study it, and how we interpret results. A science of behavior and mental processes can help us reach our goals. But it cannot decide what those goals should be. Even the words we use to describe something can reflect our values.

RETRIEVAL PRACTICEAnimal protection legislation, laboratory regulation and in...