Chapter 10 Motivation and Emotion Notes PDF

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Chapter 10 Motivation and Emotion Notes 1. Theories of Motivation 1. Motivation 1. force that moves people to behave, think and feel the way they do 2. behavior is energized, directed and sustained 2. The Evolutionary Path 1. emphasizes role of instincts 1. innate/unlearned biological pattern of behavior assumed to be universal throughout species 2. generally set in motion by sign stimulus 1. something in environment that turns on fixed pattern of behavior 3. Explain great deal of nonhuman animal behavior and some human behavior 1. ex. babies instinctively suck and something touching lips is sign stimulus 2. Human motivation rooted in evolutionary past 3. Drive Reduction Theory 1. Drive 1. aroused state of tension occurring because of a physiological need 2. ex. psychological itch needing to be scratched 3. Does not always follow need 4. Sometimes come out of nowhere 2. Need 1. deprivation that energizes drive to eliminate/reduce deprivation 2. underly drives 3. ex. may need water and drive is feeling of being thirsty 4. Need involves physiological state 3. Drive/Needs closely associated 4. Theory explains that as drive gets stronger, there is motivation to reduce it 1. goal of this is homeostasis 1. body's tendency to maintain an equilibrium/steady state of balance 2. 100s of biological states in body must be maintained w/in certain range 1. i.e. temperature,oxygenation 2. does not provide comprehensive framework for understanding motivation 1. people often behave in ways that increase drive rather than reduce it 1. ex. working difficult job 4. Optimum Arousal Theory 1. Arousal- person's feelings of being alert/engaged 1. when excited arousal levels high 2. when bored levels are low 2. Theory suggests there should be a level of arousal that is ideal for facilitating goal attainment 3. Motivation increases arousal levels 1. can want something so much that become overly motivated/anxious 2. might be unmotivated for a task that can hardly force self to do it 3. to do well sometimes a “just right” arousal level is needed 4. Yerkes-Dodson law 1. performance best under conditions of moderate arousal rather than low/high arousal 1. low end=too lethargic to perform tasks well 2. high end=may not be able to concentrate on task

5. Arousal/Performance link 1. one reason individuals in many professions are trained to overlearn important tasks 2. Overlearning 1. learning to perform task so well it is automatic 2. Hunger, Obesity and Eating Disorders 1. The Biology of Hunger 1. Gastric Signals 1. rich food stops hunger faster than same amount of water 2. hormone cholecystokinin (CKK) 1. helps start digestion 2. travels to brain through bloodstream 3. signals us to stop eating 2. Blood Chemistry 1. 3 chemical substances play role in hunger, eating and satiety (state of feeling full) 1. Glucose 1. blood sugar 2. brain depends on sugar for energy 3. sugar receptors 1. in brain and liver 1. liver stores excess sugar 2. Insulin 1. hormone 2. plays role in glucose control 3. complex carbs (bread/pasta) insulin levels go up and fall of gradually 4. simple sugars (candy) insulin levels rise then fall sharply=sugar low 3. Leptin 1. released by fat cells 2. decreases food intake/increases energy expenditure or metabolism 3. in humans high leptin levels linked w/ lower weight, less body fat and weight loss in response to dieting 4. influences eating by inhibiting production of a neurotransmitter in hypothalamus that induces eating 3. Brain Processes 1. 2 areas of hypothalamus play role in hunger: 1. Lateral Hypothalamus 1. located on outer portions 2. involved in stimulating eating 2. Ventromedial Hypothalamus 1. located more in the middle 2. involved in reducing hunger/restricting eating 2. Neurotransmitters/Neural circuits function in hunger 1. Serotonin partly responsible for satiating effect of CKK 1. serotonin antagonists have been used to treat human obesity 4. Obesity 1. The Biology of Obesity 1. genetic component 2. Set Point 1. factor in weight

2. weight maintained when individual makes no effort to gain/lose weight 3. determined by number of adipose cells (fat cells) stored in body 4. normal weight=10 to 20 billion fat cells 5. Disordered Eating 1. Eating Disorders are characterized by extreme disturbances in eating behavior 1. eating too little/too much 2. In order to treat food disorders, individuals must change relationship with food in order to survive and thrive 3. Anorexia Nervosa 1. involves relentless pursuit of thinness through starvation 2. much more common in girls/women than boys/men 3. Main Characteristics: 1. Severely restricted food intake in pursuit of low body weight compared to the normal weight for age/height 2. Refusal to maintain healthy weight level 3. Intense fear of gaining weight that doesn't decrease weight loss 4. Distorted body image 4. Physical Changes 1. growth of fine hair all over body 2. thinning of bones and hair 3. severe constipation 4. low blood pressure 5. Life Threatening Complications 1. damage to heart and thyroid 6. Said to have highest mortality rate of any psychological disorder 7. Typically begins in teenage years 8. Obsessive thinking about weigh and compulsive exercise are related to anorexia 9. individuals may deny anything is wrong as obstacle of treatment 4. Bulimia Nervosa 1. eating disorder in which individual (typically female) consistently follows bingepurge eating pattern 2. most w/ bulimia are preoccupied w./food, have strong fear of being overweight and are depressed/anxious 3. purge through inducing vomiting or laxatives 4. occurs w/in normal weight range 1. disorder hard to detect 5. Complications: 1. chronic sore throat 2. kidney problems 3. dehydration 4. gastrointestinal disorders 5. dental problems due to persistent exposure to stomach acids in vomit which wear away tooth enamel 6. typically begins in late adolescence/early adulthood 7. associated w/ sexual/physical abuse in childhood 5. Anorexia/Bulimia Nervosa Causes/Treatments 1. Biological factors as well as social factors/experiences play role in emergence of eating disorders

2. Physical effects of dieting, bingeing and purging may change neural networks that then sustain disordered pattern 3. Anorexia may require hospitalization 4. first intervention target is promoting weight gain, in extreme cases via feeding tube 6. Binge Eating Disorder (BED) 1. Characterized by recurrent episodes of eating more food in short period of time than most people would eat and during which person feels lack of control over eating 2. don't try compensating for what they've eaten by purging 3. most w/ BED are overweight or obese 4. frequently eat along due to embarrassment/guilt and feel ashamed/disgusted after bingeing 5. most common of all eating disorders 6. thought to characterize about 8% of people who are obese 7. binge eaters more likely to place value on physical appearance weight and body shape 8. Complications: 1. Diabetes 2. Hypertension 3. Cardiovascular Disease 9. Causes/Treatments 1. Genes play a role in cause 2. Dopamine as well 3. Binge eating usually occurs during stressful events and so binge eaters may use food to regulate emotions 4. Brain/endocrine system that respond to stress are overactive in individuals w/ BED 5. some believe treatment should promote weight loss 6. others believe treatment should address the underlying issues causing BED 3. Approaches to Motivation in Everyday Life 1. Maslow's Hierarchy of Human Needs 1. Hierarchy of needs 1. must be satisfied in sequence: 1. psychological needs 2. safety 3. love/belongingness 4. esteem 5. self-actualization 2. stronger needs at base (psychological) and weakest at top (self-actualization) 3. people are motivated to satisfy need for food first and to fulfill need for safety before need for love 4. asserted that each lower need comes from deficiency (being hungry/afraid/lonely) 5. only see higher level needs in a person who has satisfied to some extent the most basic needs 1. person can then turn their attention to fulfillment of a higher calling 6. Self-actualization 1. highest and most elusive of Maslow's needs 2. motivation to develop one's full potential as human being

3. possible only after other needs in hierarchy are met 4. most people stop moving up hierarchy once developed a high level of esteem and don't reach self-actualization 5. Inspired self determination theory 2. Self Determination Theory 1. Asserts there are three basic organismic needs: 1. Competence 1. met when individual feels they were able to bring out desired outcome 2. involves self efficiency (belief that one has competence to accomplish goal/task) 3. also involves mastery (sense that skills can be gained and obstacles overcome) 4. Achievement=domain where competence may be met 2. Relatedness 1. need to engage in warm relation w/ others 2. reflected in importance of parents nurturing children's development, intimate moments of sharing private thoughts in friendship and discomfort when lonely 3. Autonomy 1. sense that we are in control of our own life 2. feeling that one's behavior is self motivated and emerging from genuine interest 2. Organismic means psychological needs are innate and exist in every person 3. organismic needs do not arise from deficits 4. not a drive reduction theory 5. needs concern personal growth not filling of deficiencies 6. Maintains that one of most important aspects of healthy motivation is sense that we do things because we have chosen to freely do them which can lead to heightened fulfillment 3. Intrinsic VS. Extrinsic Motivation 1. Intrinsic Motivation 1. based on internal factors such as organismic needs as well as curiosity, challenge and fun 2. engage in behavior because it is enjoyed 2. Extrinsic Motivation 1. involves external incentives like rewards/punishments 2. engage in behavior for external payoff or to avoid external punishments 4. Self-Regulation: Successful Pursuit of Goals 1. process by which organism effortfully controls behavior in order to pursue important objectives 2. key aspect is feedback 3. Personal goals into action involves: 1. setting goals 2. planning their implementation 3. monitoring progress 4. Success improves when goals are specific and moderately challenging 5. long term goals accomplishment is brought about by pursuing short term goals 6. Delay of Gratification 1. putting off pleasurable experience in interest of some larger but later reward

7. 2 things associated w/ poor self regulation: 1. Impulsivity 1. tendency to act rashly w/out thinking/planning 2. impulsive individuals have trouble dealing w/ temptation or sticking to long term goals 2. Procrastination 1. intentionally putting off actions on a goal 2. thinking about something but doing nothing 4. Emotion 1. feeling/affect that can involve physiological arousal (fast heartbeat), conscious experience (feeling joy) and behavioral expression (smiling) 2. body, mind and face play key roles in emotion 3. Self-regulation suggests motivation and emotion are closely linked 4. Biological Factors in Emotion 1. The Autonomic Nervous System 1. Emotions are associated w/ sympathetic nervous system (SNS) arousal 1. responsible for rapid reactions to threats like increased blood pressure 2. Measuring SNS Activity 1. Skin Conductance Level (SCL) 1. one way to measure SNS arousal 2. a rise in skin's electrical conductivity when sweat gland activity increases 2. Polygraph 1. lie detector 2. machines used to monitor changes in body (heart rate,breathing and SCL) thought to be influenced by emotional states 3. Theories of Emotion 1. James-Lange Theory 1. emotion results from physiological states triggered by stimuli in the environment 1. emotions occur after physiological reactions 2. emotions are not mental events that lead to reaction but rather physiological reactions lead to emotional states 3. Lange 1. each emotion has distinct set of physiological changes 2. Cannon-Bard Theory 1. emotion and physiological reactions occur simultaneously 2. body plays less important role than in James-Lange 4. Neurotransmitters and Neural Circuits 1. dopamine and endorphines linked to positive emotions 1. ex. happiness 2. norepinephrine functions in regulating arousal and anxiety 3. limbic system w/ amygdalae involved in experience of positive emotions 4. amygdalae plays important role in experience of negative emotion, including fear 1. when amygdalae determines danger is present, they marshal brain's resource in effort to protect organism from harm 2. fear system evolved to detect/respond to natural dangers threatening survival/territory 5. Brain circuitry for fear- 2 pathways: 1. Direct pathway from thalamus to amygdalae 1. does not convey detailed info about stimulus but is fast

2. Indirect pathway from thalamus through sensory cortex to amygdalae 1. carries nerve impulses from sensory organs (eyes) to thalamus (relay station for incoming sensory stimuli) then to sensory cortex before signaling amygdalae 3. amygdalae retains fear associations for long time 1. useful because once something is known to be dangerous it doesn't have to be relearned 2. fears can be difficult to unlearn 3. amygdalae well connected to cerebral cortex and in thus in much better position to influence it 1. may be why it is hard to control emotions and why fear is hard to erase 5. Cognitive Factors in Emotion 1. Cognitive theories center on premise that emotions always has cognitive component 1. thinking said to be responsible for feelings of love/hate, joy/sadness 2. The Two Factor Theory of Emotion 1. developed by Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer 2. emotion determined by 2 factors: 1. physiological arousal 2. cognitive labeling 3. look to external world for explanation of why we are aroused 4. interpret external cues and label emotion 5. tells us often our bodies send ambiguous message about what's going on in the world 1. take those messages and look for explanations in immediate circumstances which is what produces emotions 3. The Primacy Debate: Cognition or Emotion 1. Richard Lazarus 1. thinking is primary 2. cognitive activity causes feelings 3. appraisals guided by values, goals, beliefs and expectations 2. Robert Zajonc 1. emotions are primary 2. thoughts a result of emotions 3. preferences need no interference= way we feel about something requires no thought 3. some emotional reactions are virtually instantaneous and probably involve no cognitive appraisal 1. ex. shrieking after seeing a snake 4. Long term feelings, like depressed mood are more likely cognitive appraisal 6. Behavioral Factors in Emotion 1. can be verbal or non verbal 1. Verbal ex-saying nasty things displays anger 2. Nonverbal ex-smiling or frowning 2. Facial Feedback Hypothesis 1. facial expressions can influence and reflect emotions 2. provides support for James-Lange theory 3. facial muscles send signals to brain that help us recognize emotion we are experiencing 1. ex. feel happier when we smile

7. Sociocultural Factors in Emotion 1. Display Rules 1. sociocultural standards determining when, where and how emotions should be expressed 2. important of display rules especially important when evaluating the emotional expression of others 2. Emotional Expression in Computer Communications 1. Emoticons allow us to compensate for loss of info from other expressive channels (vocal tone or facial expression) 2. culture influences emoticons 8. Classifying Emotions 1. Valence 1. refers to whether an emotion feels pleasant or unpleasant 2. emotions tend to go together based on valence 1. ex. someone is sad also likely to be angry/worried as well 3. Negative Affect 1. emotions such as anger, guilt and sadness 4. Positive Affect 1. emotions such as joy, happiness and interest 2. Arousal Level 1. sometimes called activation level 2. degree to which emotion is reflected in an individual's being active, engaged or excited vs. passive, disengaged or calm 3. positive/negative emotions can be high or low in arousal 1. positive high levels- ecstasy/excitement 2. positive low levels-contentment/tranquility 3. negative high levels-rage, fury, panic 4. negative low levels- irritation and boredom 4. Circumplex model of emotions 1. wheel of mood states 2. graph that creates circle from 2 independent dimensions to arrange emotional states in organized fashion 3. The Motivational Quality of Emotions 1. recently begun classifying emotions based on relevance to motivations 1. emotions to avoid punishers 1. ex. fear 2. emotions to approach rewards 1. ex. anger 9. The Adaptive Functions of Emotions 1. Negative Emotions carry direct adaptive benefits in situations that threaten survival 2. Broaden and Build model (of positive emotion) 1. states that function of positive emotions is to broaden scope of attention and foster building of resources 2. begins w/ influence of positive emotion on attention 1. positive emotions like contentment/humor been show to broaden attentional focus 2. being in good mood may be beneficial to out of the box thinking 3. building part of model comes in as positive mood signals there is no immediate threat and we can explore w/out concern

1. this allows individuals to branch out and build up strength to be used when encountering life's difficulties 3. Positive emotions play important role in ability of resilient individuals to cope w/ challenges 1. resilient individuals: 1. cultivate positive emotions through use of humor 2. superior coping skills come from ability to use positive emotions to bounce back from negative experiences 3. better able to regulate response to stressful situations 5. Motivation, Emotion and Health/Wellness: Pursuit of Happiness 1. experience of negative emotions related to disease, heart attack and death 2. Biological Factors in Happiness 1. heritability estimates for happiness range from 50-80% 2. Brain and genes play role in experience of positive emotions 3. may also be happiness set point 1. basic level of happiness when individual isn't trying to increase their happiness 3. Obstacles in Pursuit of Happiness 1. Hedonic Treadmill 1. means related to pleasure 2. first key challenge encountered when trying to increase happiness 3. captures idea that any aspect of life that enhances one's positive feeling is likely to do so for only a short time 1. individual's generally adapt to any life change that would presumably influence their happiness 2. second challenge in enhancing happiness is pursuing happiness for its own sake is rarely a good way to get happy/happier 1. when happiness is goal, pursuit is likely to backfire 4. Happiness Activities and Goal Striving 1. Enhancing Happiness: 1. intentional activities like: 1. altruistic behavior 2. gratitude journal for self reflection 3. commit to pursuit of personally meaningful goals 1. goals that are personally valuable and reflect intrinsic needs 2. be moderately challenging and share instrumental relationship w/ each other 2. Goal pursuit has tremendous advantage 3. Goals change/are changed by life experience 1. as result, goal pursuit less susceptible to dreaded hedonic treadmill...