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Ch 10--Intelligence    

What is the difference between intelligence and talent? Are intelligence and wisdom the same thing? Are intelligence and creativity related? How do we value intelligence?

What do we mean by intelligence? Various ways in which intelligence has been defined and summarize the current thinking on whether intelligence is general or specific  Intelligence: the ability to learn, to meet the demands of the environment effectively, and to understand and control one's mental activities o Be careful about how broadly we apply the "meeting the demands of the environment"  Metacognition: the ability to understand and control one's mental activities o "Know thyself"

Is intelligence general or specific?  

The concept of intelligence may differ from one culture to another Is intelligence largely the result of a single, general factor, or does it come from a cluster of different, more focused abilities?

Spearman and the 'g factor' 

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Factor analysis: a statistical method for determining whether certain items on a test correlate highly, thus forming a unified set, or cluster, of items o i.e., people who do well on vocabulary items also tend to do well on other verbal items, such as reading comprehension. Taken together, all of the test items relating to words/reading form a verbal-reasoning cluster that can be used to assess a person's overall verbal-reasoning skill o Logical, spatial, and mechanical reasoning Those who scored high on one cluster tend to score high on other clusters as well G factor: a theoretical general factor of intelligence underlying all distinct clusters of mental ability; part of Spearman's two-factor theory of intelligence o General factor o Reflects a broader and deeper capability for comprehending our surroundings S factor: a theoretical specific factor uniquely tied to a distinct mental ability or area of functioning; part of Spearman's two-factor theory of intelligence o Specific factor Spearman's two-factor theory of intelligence: the g factor of intelligence represents a broad and deep capability that underlies all other specific mental abilities, or the s factors

Psychometric view of intelligence 

The psychometric approach to studying intelligence attempts to measure intelligence with carefully constructed psychological tests o Standardization, reliability, and validity o Francis Galton proposed the theory of psychophysical performance o Francis Binet developed a test to predict children's success in school o Lewis Terman adapted Binet's work = Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test and devised the intelligence quotient

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David Wechsler developed the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) to broaden the usefulness of intelligence testing  The distinction between mental and chronological age becomes less informative when testing adults  There was a need for greater fairness when testing people who did not speak English or who spoke it poorly  Discarded the old formula for calculating an IQ score… derived the score from a normal distribution rather than from a ratio

IQ score =

Mentalage ∗100 C h ronological age

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Performance on intelligence tests correlates highly with school performance, but not necessarily other areas of functioning in life  Intelligence tests are subject to culture-specific nature, which may produce bias o Stereotype threat Spearman's 2-factor theory  General intelligence, g o "True" intelligence is related to g  Specific intelligence, s o Verbal, numerical, spatial… Horn & Cattell's theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence  Fluid intelligence is your general processing ability o Decreases with age o The general ability to think abstractly, reason, identify patterns, solve problems, and discern relationships; considered independent of learning, experience, and education  As fluid intelligence decreases, crystallized intelligence increases (with age) o More than offsets the decline in fluid intelligence o An accumulation of one's knowledge, that comes from prior learning and past experiences o Reading comprehension, vocabulary exams o Based upon facts and rooted in experiences Multiple-factor theories  Abandoned the concept of general intelligence, and looked for specific factors

Thurstone and primary mental abilities 

Primary mental abilities: seven distinct mental abilities identified by Thurstone as the basic components of intelligence  Each of the primary mental abilities was distinct, not simply a reflection of general underlying intelligence Thurstone's seven factors of intelligence Factor Examples Verbal comprehension

Vocabulary, reading, comprehension, verbal analogies, etc.

Word fluency

The ability to quickly generate and manipulate a large number of words with specific characteristics, as in anagrams or rhyming tests

Numerical skill

The ability to quickly and accurately carry our mathematical operations

Spatial ability

Skill in spatial visualization as well as the ability to mentally transform spatial figures

Associative memory

Rote memory

Perceptual speed Quickness in perceiving visual details, anomalies, similarities, etc. Reasoning

Skill in a variety of inductive, deductive, and arithmetic reasoning tasks

Current multifactor theories of intelligence (Broadening the definition of intelligence and deemphasizing the g factor)

Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences  

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Theory of multiple intelligences: there is no single unified intelligence, but instead several independent intelligences arising from different portions of the brain Support: damage to specific areas of the brain does not necessarily lead to a universal collapse of mental functioning. Rather, some types of functioning may be affected while others remain intact Savant syndrome: individuals who score low on traditional intelligence tests, yet possess startling ability in a specific area 9 basic intelligences: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic, and existentialist Thurstone held that the mental functions he identified collectively constitute intelligence. Gardner believes that each factor is itself an "intelligence" Gardner believes that the various intelligences are best measured in the contexts in which they occur. Thus, assessments conducted in real-world settings where the intelligences they are trying to tap are actually used are more useful than paper-and-pencil examinations for assessing several of the intelligences Garnder's definition of multiple intelligences includes an important cultural component: each intelligence reflects "the ability to solve problems, or to create products, that are valuable within one or more cultural settings" Modular model of mental functioning = because the various intelligences are thought to emanate from different modules of the brain The intelligences can influence one another Still deeper relationships exist among the various intelligences and mental functions!

Robert Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence  

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Triarchic theory of intelligence: Sternberg's theory that intelligence is made up of three interacting components: internal, external, and experiential components Intelligence is not a unitary mental function. It is made up of three interacting components, called internal, external, and experiential components o The analytic, creative, and practical components Internal (analytic)-- relates to the internal processing of information: acquiring information; planning, monitoring, and evaluating problems; or carrying out directions. The internal aspect of intelligence is the one most often measured by today's intelligence tests--the sort of intelligence needed for straightforward tasks and problems that we confront at school/work or in life External (creative)-- some tasks are novel and require a special way of thinking. This component of intelligence clearly requires creativity, and it must also interact with the internal component of intelligence to bring about successful results

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Experiential (practical)-- helps us adapt to or improve our environments or select new environments o Adapting to the environment, changing the environment, selecting a new environment

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Practical knowledge often relies on tacit knowledge, "action oriented knowledge, acquired without direct help from others, which allows individuals to achieve goals they personally value" Effective interactions among the internal, external, and experiential components are keys to achieving successful intelligence--an advantageous balance between adapting to, shaping, and selecting problems encountered within one's environment Because each intellectual component in Sternberg's theory actively relates to the others, his model is considered more dynamic than Gardner's

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Stephen Ceci's bioecological theory of intelligence     

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Bioecological model of intelligence: Ceci's theory that intelligence is a function of the interactions among innate potential abilities, environmental context, and internal motivation Each person's innate potential abilities derive from a system of biological factors, "resource pools" Resource pools are independent of each other, and each is responsible for different aspects of one's information-processing capabilities A person's innate abilities will develop based more or less on how they interact with the individual's environmental resources, or context EX, a child whose biological resource pool endows her with the potential to succeed in math. Her abilities might prompt her parents to provide environmental changes that will help her to further develop her innate math potential  This encouraging environmental context will likely lead to further successes, which in turn may lead to additional environmental changes, such as enrollment in a special school Finally, individuals must be internally motivated to fulfill their innate abilities and take advantage of their particular environments. When people feel motivated in certain areas, they tend to focus on their intellectual skills in those areas and to seek our environmental resources that are relevant

Where are we today?    

The majority believe that intelligence includes a g factor--an overriding intellectual ability Most consider specific abilities (verbal, numerical, spatial skills) and special factors (motivation, context, experience) to also be important in the expression of intelligence The g factor is at work in every task that we confront in life, while the specific abilities and special factors come into play for some tasks but not others = hierarchal model of intelligence

Additional types of intelligence Several proposed types of intelligence that go beyond intellectual functioning

Emotional intelligence    

Emotional intelligence: ability to perceive, express, assimilate, and regulate emotion (in the self and others) Emotionally intelligent people are self-aware, sensitive to how they feel and how their feelings change, and able to manage their emotions so that they are not overwhelmed by them People with well-developed emotional intelligence also tend to be empathetic Can it be measured? o Multifactor emotional intelligence scale

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Measures 12 emotional abilities that are, in turn, grouped into four "branches of abilities"--perceiving, facilitating, understanding, and managing emotion Emotional intelligence can be learned

Social intelligence   

Intelligence--three facets: the ability to understand and manage ideas (abstract intelligence), concrete objects (mechanical intelligence), and people (social intelligence) The ability to act wisely in human relationships The ability to get along with others

Wisdom  

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The ability to make sound judgments about important, difficult, or uncertain situations and to choose the best course of action A special version of intelligence: the balance theory of wisdom o Sternberg o Triarchic theory: intelligence consists of three aspects--analytic, creative, and practical-with practical intelligence involving the ability to effectively apply one's experiences and learning to everyday decisions o So, wisdom is primarily the product of practical intelligence; the application of tacit knowledge…to solve problems in such a way that a common good is achieved and a balance maintained among the interests of the individual, the community, and society o Wisdom involves a particular concern for the community at large and a careful balancing of interests It typically takes years and repeated experiences to appreciate the needs of the community, the advantages of compromise solutions, the drawbacks of self-serving decisions, and the art of balancing multiple perspectives--it takes time and experience to acquire a high degree of wisdom

Creativity      

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Creativity: the ability to produce ideas that are both original and valuable Reflects collective, as well as personal, values Plays a key role in technological, scientific, and artistic advances--different cultures define and appreciate creativity in different ways A high intellectual aptitude is necessary but not sufficient for creativity Beyond a certain point, the correlation between intelligence and creativity diminishes--there is more to creativity than what intelligence tests measure Key to creativity: o Intrinsic motivation-- an internal drive to create o Imagination-- an ability and willingness to re-examine problems in new ways o Game personality-- one that tolerates ambiguity, risk, and initial failure o Complex thinking, broad attention, expertise in relevant fields, broad interests, high energy, independence, and self-confidence o Divergent thinking, seeing how many different ways people can think about simple objects of events Creative thinking is nurtured, inspired, and refined by creative environments--qualities: o They encourage people to be innovative o Are relatively free of criticism o Provide freedom, creative role models, sufficient resources, and time to think and explore

Personality characteristics  

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Our unique patterns of experiencing and acting in the world Wechsler: intelligence = a manifestation of personality o Thought that emotional, motivational, and other personal characteristics (such as interest and volition) must be key components of any meaningful notion of intelligence A number of today's theorists think of intelligence as the cognitive part of personality Others propose a complex reciprocal relationship between intelligence and personality, with intellectual, emotional, and motivational variables repeatedly affecting each other in day-to day behaviour Conversely, certain personality factors, such as self-efficacy and a high need to achieve, often enhance performance on intellectual tasks

How do we measure intelligence? Important considerations in the construction of intelligence tests, discuss the history of intelligence testing, and describe some criticisms of intelligence tests  Psychometric approach: attempts to measure intelligence with carefully constructed psychological tests

Intelligence test construction and interpretation 

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Intelligence test constructors typically assume a comparative view of test scores; they usually measure intelligence by comparing one person's test scores with another's. however, there is no absolute or independent standard of intelligence against which to compare intelligence test scores A test much function the same in different groups of people Similar items on a test must relate both to one another and to the material of interest Tests should adhere to three basic criteria: standardization, reliability, and validity

Standardization    

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Score = compared to a normative sample Standardization: the use of uniform procedures in administering and scoring a test Particular patterns: distributions Normal distribution: a symmetrical, bell-shaped distribution in which more scores are in the middle, with smaller groups of equal size at either end o "Normal curve," "bell curve: Median: the score exactly in the middle of a distribution Mean: the average score in a distribution Mode: the score that occurs most frequently in a distribution If a sample is properly converted into a normal distribution, the median, mean, and mode should be the same

Reliability  

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Reliability: the degree to which a test produces the same scores over time Test-retest reliability--administering the test twice, in a same/similar version o If the scores on the two administrations agree for each individual, they are said to correlate highly, and the test is reliable Split-half reliability--divide the items on a single test into two tests, and see whether each individual's scores on the two halves of the test correlate highly The higher the statistical correlation between scores, the greater the reliability +1.00 = reliable!

Validity

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Validity: the extent to which a test accurately measures or predicts what it is supposed to measure or predict Content validity: the degree to which the content of a test accurately represents what the test is intended to measure Validity coefficient: a correlation coefficient that measures validity by correlating a test score with some external criterion Predictive validity: the extent to which scored on a particular test successfully predict the things it is supposed to predict

History of intelligence testing Galton and "psychophysical performance"  

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Believed in a general intelligence factor, proposed that two qualities distinguish more gifted from less gifted people: a kind of psychic energy and a heightened sensitivity to external stimuli Theory of psychophysical performance--people with more energy can perform more work and, in turn, develop greater intelligence o Individuals who have more highly developed senses can take in more information Tests of an individual's sensory processing, motor skills, and reaction time To determine whether each research participant's performances on various psychophysical tests were correlated, [Wissler] used correlation coefficients--a statistical method developed by Galton

Alfred Binet and the Binet-Simon intelligence test      

Notion of a general intelligence factor. The basis of intelligence is "the ability to demonstrate memory, judgment, reasoning, and social comprehension" Focused largely on language abilities Mental age: the intellectual age at which a person is function, as opposed to chronological age Binet did not believe his intelligence test measured a child's inborn level of intelligence, but to predict a student's likelihood of success in school The test correlate with scores on achievement tests--tests of knowledge about particular school subjects Binet refused to use test scores to rank children…intelligence is too complex a phenomenon to draw meaningful conclusions about the relative intelligence among most children

Lewis Terman and the Stanford-Binet intelligence test   

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Adapted the Binet-Simon intelligence test for use in the US… An important early recognition of the influence of culture in intelligence testing Intelligence quotient (IQ): Terman's measure of intelligence; the ratio of a child's mental age to her chronological age, multiplied by 100 Terman had a larger goal--eugenics movement o ...