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Globalization: Sense that there are forces in the world bringing us together Supranational: State decisions to cooperate in order to create international organizations that subsume a number of states and their functions within a larger whole. ○ Many IOS, like the UN, struggle between contradictory forces of nationalism and supranationalism-- between state sovereignty and higher authority of supranational structures Transnational actors: bridge national borders, creating new avenues of interdependence among states Transnational issues: processes that force states to work together because they cannot manage the issue alone ○ Ex: Global Warming International Integration: attempts to explain why states choose supranationalism, which challenges realism. Refers to the process by which supranational institutions replace national ones; the gradual shifting upward of sovereignty from state → regional/global structures. ○

Ultimately many states → single state → world government

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Would probably entail some sort of federalism ■ Form of government adopted in the U.S. Constitution In the past, integration has never gone beyond a partial and uneasy sharing of power between state and supranational levels ■ States are unwilling to give up their claim to sovereignty and have limited the authority of supranational institutions ■ UN = step in the right direction Most successful example: the European Union ■ Regional coordination occurring across Western Europe ■ Western European states formed supranational institutions and created an economic community to promote free trade and coordinate economic policies (integration) ■ These moves could be explained by functionalism: growth of specialized technical organizations that cross national borders. Technical and economic development lead to more and more supranational structures as states seek practical means to fulfill necessary functions, such as delivering mail from one country to another. ● Predicts that states would be drawn together into stronger international economic structures ■ The European structures went beyond this creation of specialized agencies to include the development of more general, more political supranational bodies, like the European Parliament ■ Neofunctionalism: A modification of functional theory that argues that economic integration (functionalism) generates a political dynamic that drives integration further. Closer economic ties require more political coordination in order to operate effectively and eventually lead to political integration as well as a process called spillover. ■ Security community: “Sense of community,” “we” feeling, low expectation of violence among states in Western Europe.

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Integration can mean greater centralization at a time when individuals, local groups, and national populations demand more say over their own affairs. ○ Has also set in motion a wave of disintegration: states running counter to the integrating tendencies of today’s world. ○ Less successful integration attempts = nationalism prevails The European Union: Created after WWII. Gone through waves of expansion in scope, membership, and mission since then-- 500 million citizens and surpasses U.S. economy in GDP ○ Created to implement functionalism in Europe, hoping that future wars could be prevented by creating economic linkages that would bind states together politically. ○ European Coal and Steel Community: France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg worked through the ECSC to reduce trade barriers in coal and high steel to coordinate their coal and steel policies, established a High Authority that could bypass governments and deal directly with companies, labor unions, and individuals. ■ Issues involved were solved by engineers and technical experts and did not threaten politicians. ■ Since then, technical experts has served as leaders of the integration process ■ Easy to do this with technical cooperation, harder with political and military ○ Structure: ■ Organized under the European Commission: 27 individual members (one from each state). Their role is to identify problems and propose solutions to the Council of the EU. ● Supposed to represent the interests of Europe as a whole (supranational), not their own states. ● Lacks formal autonomous power except for day-to-day EU operations ● The commission reports to/implements policies of the Council of the European Union: meeting of the relevant ministers (foreign, economic, agriculture, finance, etc.) of each member state-- politicians who control the bureaucrats. ○ Formal structure reflects states’ resistance to yielding sovereignty. ○ Individuals on the council vary from one meeting to the next; technical issues receive priority over political ones ■ European Parliament: Watchdog over the European Commission with some power to legislate. ● Shares power with the council under a codecision procedure ■ European Court of Justice: Adjudicates disputes on matters covered by the Treaty of Rome-- many issues. ● Has actively established its jurisdiction and does not serve only as a mechanism of international mediation ● Can overrule laws with conflict with EU laws-- unique powers among international courts. ● Hears cases brought by both individuals and governments. Treaty of Rome: 1957, same 6 states created two new organizations ○ Euratom: Extended the coal and steel idea into a new realm, autonomic energy.

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European Atomic Energy Community, formed to coordinate nuclear power development by pooling research, investment, and management. ■ Continues to operate today ○ Free Trade Area: Lifting tariffs and restrictions on the movement of goods across borders. Today: European Free Trade Association is an extended free trade area associated with the European Union ■ Customs Union: Participating states adopt a unified set of tariffs with regard to goods coming in from outside the free trade area. ● Without unified tariffs, each type of good could be exported into the states with the lowest tariff and the reexported tariff free to other states within the free trade area. ● Treaty of Rome committed the 6 states to creating a customs union by 1969. ● Creates free and open trade within its member states, bringing great economic benefits. ■ Common market: In addition to the customs union, member states allow labor and capital to flow freely across borders. ● Ex: Common Agricultural Policy: Based on the principle that a subsidy extended to farmers in any member state should be extended to farmers in all EU countries. This way, no member government was forced to alienate politically powerful farmers by removing subsidies, but the overall policy would be equal. ○ Result: Farmers absorb 40% of the EU’s budget ■ Economic and Monetary Union (EMU): Overall economic policies of member states are coordinated for greatest efficiency and stability. ● Single currency would replace separate national currencies. ● Supranational coordination of economic policies like budgets and taxes. Single European Act: First major revision of the Treaty of Rome, began a new phase of accelerated integration ○ Aimed to eliminate nontariff barriers to free trade in goods, services, labor, and capital within the EC. ■ Unify standards, such as food regulation ○ Gave a new push to the European Central Bank and a single currency monetary system ○ Moved economic integration into more political and controversial areas, eroding sovereignty Maastricht Treaty: Renamed the EC as the EU and committed it to further progress in 3 main areas: ○ Monetary Union: existing national currencies were abolished and replaced by a single European currency ○ Justice and Home Affairs: created a European police agency and responded to the borders that were now open to immigrants, criminals, sex traffickers and contraband. Also expanded the idea of citizenship so that EU members can vote in any country ○ Political and Military Integration: commits European states to work toward a common foreign policy with a goal of eventually establishing a joint military force.

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Increase in a sense of loss of national identity and sovereignty Reshaped the political economy: the EU sets the rules for one of the world’s largest markets, for a vast production and technology network, and for the world’s strongest currency. Euro: Replaced the national currency in 17 EU member states. Used by national governments and for international exchange ○ The national currencies ceased to exist ○ Issues with the monetary union: ■ Fundamental economic and financial conditions must be equalized-- one state cannot stimulate its economy with low interest rates while another cools inflation with high interest rates. ■ The EU doesn’t have centralized power and therefore cannot control taxation or the national budget. (Split of fiscal and monetary policy) ○ Solution: Work toward equalizing Europe’s economies ■ Reduce the disparity between the rich and the poor ■ Restrict membership in the monetary union to those countries with enough financial stability to not jeopardize the union. ● To join: state had to achieve a budget deficit of less than 3 % of GDP, a national debt of less than 60% of GDP, an inflation rate of no more than 1.5 percentage points, and stable interest rates and national currency values. Expanding the EU: Success has attracted neighboring states to want to join ○ Expanded to 15 → 28 members, far-reaching changes in how the EU operates ○ ○ ○ ○

Guided by the 2000 Treaty of Nice New members to the EU are relatively poor Over the past decade, the EU has divided into “inner” and “outer” layers (rich/poor) Lisbon Treaty: Created changes in the structure and day-to-day operations of the EU ■ Promotes more supranational decision making ● Charter of human rights became legally binding on all member states ■ Also allows state members and individual citizens to place more checks on EU power ● National parliaments have more say in who is admitted to the EU...