Chapter 13 Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Adulthood PDF

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Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Adulthood

Physical Development in Early Adulthood All of the organs and body systems, including digestive, respiratory, circulatory, and reproductive systems, peak in functioning during early adulthood. Senescence – A pattern of gradual age-related declines in physical functioning begins in early adulthood. – Measurable age-related changes in functioning, known as aging, are visible by about age 30. – Age-Related Physical Changes in Young Adulthood: Hair and Skin By age 20: – Age-related changes in the skin By age 30: – Gray hairs – Hereditary baldness – Less skin elasticity and some visible wrinkles around the eyes and forehead • Age-Related Physical Changes in Young Adulthood: Muscle Development Muscle development increases throughout the 20s and peaks at about age 30. Isometric muscle strength is maintained throughout adulthood. Activities that require body coordination and bursts of strength peak in the early 20s; activities that require endurance peak in the early 30s. Age-Related Physical Changes in Young Adulthood: Reproductive Capacity Reproductive capacity declines with age, increasing the risk for women in their mid- to late 30s of experiencing difficulty conceiving Figure 13.1: Births to Women Aged 18 to 39 in the United States, 1990 to 2013 Reasons for Infertility Females: – Chromosomal anomalies accumulate as egg cells age, increasing the risk of pregnancy loss, or miscarriage. – Failure to ovulate. – Ovarian cancer and ovarian cysts. – Dwindling reserves of ova. Males – Most men remain able to conceive into older adulthood. – The number and quality of sperm produced declines in middle adulthood, beginning at about age 40. Theories of Aging Wear and tear theory of aging – The body wears out from use and thus ages. – On the contrary, research suggests that we must “use it or lose it”. DNA and heredity

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– Parents’ life spans predict those of their children and identical twins share more similar life spans than do fraternal twins. – Theories of Aging (continued) Caloric restriction – A nutritious diet that is extremely low in calories is associated with a longer life span. Immune system – Influences the body’s adjustment to external stressors and pathogens encountered throughout life. Cellular mutation – Damage to DNA and chromosomes. Theories of Aging (continued 2) Free radicals – Free radicals destroy DNA, proteins, and other cellular materials. Limited capacity for human cells to divide – Human cells have the capacity to divide about 50 times in their life span. Table 13.1: Theories of Aging Overweight and Obesity The absence of parental controls, access to an abundance of food, and busy lives make it difficult for young adults to eat healthily. Obesity (BMI of 30 or above) and overweight (BMI greater than 25) have increased substantially in recent decades. – 34% of American adults are overweight. – 35% of American adults are obese. Factors Related to Obesity Heredity Environmental pressures – Reduction in physical labor. – Food, especially unhealthy food, is more abundant. – Sedentary lifestyles. – Drop in calorie needs between the ages of 25 and 50 and the metabolic rate falls. – Low SES. Risks of Obesity High blood pressure Stroke Circulatory problems Diabetes Digestive disorders Arthritis Cancer Early death Physical Activity Exercise is an important influence on longevity. – Regular moderate exercise enhances immunity.

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– Stress reduction. – Cardiovascular health. – Cancer prevention. – Mental health benefits. Guidelines recommend engaging in at least 150 minutes of moderate activity each week or 75 minutes of vigorous activity, plus muscle strengthening exercises on at least two days each week. Stress Psychological stress can motivate behavior or debilitate, impairing functioning. Stress is a part of every person’s life. – Daily hassles. – Experiencing an overload of daily hassles, negative life events, and unfavorable social conditions is associated with high levels of stress and poor health. Substance Abuse In North America, substance use tends to begin during adolescence, peak in the early 20s, and decline into the 30s. – Pressures in early adulthood coupled with easy access to drugs and alcohol increase the risk of using and abusing marijuana, alcohol, and other drugs in early adulthood. Tobacco About 80% of smokers have their first cigarette before age 18, but regular or daily smoking often does not begin until about age 20 The overall risk of initiating smoking plateaus at about age 22 33% of 18- to 39-year olds in the U.S. report smoking tobacco cigarettes Cigarette smoking is responsible for about one of every five deaths in the U.S. each year Marijuana The most commonly used substance after alcohol and nicotine in the U.S. – 20% of 18- to 20-year olds; 13% of 21- to 25-year olds; 6% of 26- to 34-year olds report using marijuana in the last month. Marijuana is used sporadically and limited in duration for most young people. Marijuana is addictive and has similar health problems to tobacco smokers Alcohol Alcohol is the drug of choice for most people throughout adulthood. Binge drinking – Consuming five or more drinks in one sitting in men and four drinks in one sitting in women. – Heaving drinking is defined as two or more instances of binge drinking within the past 30 days. Figure 13.2: Current, Binge, and Heavy Alcohol Use Among Persons Ages 12 and Older, by Age, 2014 Alcohol Dependence A maladaptive pattern of alcohol use that leads to clinically significant impairment or distress, as indicated by tolerance, withdrawal or drinking to relieve withdrawal, inability to reduce drinking, drinking more or for longer than intended, craving alcohol, recurrent

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alcohol use in physically hazardous situations, neglect of activities and obligations, time spent related to drinking or recovering from drinking, and continued use of alcohol despite alcohol-related psychological or physical problems. Also known as alcohol use disorder. Figure 13.3Driving Under the Influence of Alcohol in the Past Year, by Age, 2013 Postformal Reasoning Thinking and problem solving are restructured in adulthood to integrate abstract reasoning with practical considerations. Young adults who demonstrate postformal thinking recognize that: – Most problems have multiple causes and solutions. – Some solutions are better choices than others. – All problems involve uncertainty. Epistemic Cognition The ways in which individuals understand how they arrive at ideas, beliefs, and conclusions. People’s understanding of the nature of knowledge advances along a predictable path in young adulthood, especially among college students. Dualistic Thinking Versus Relativistic Thinking Dualistic thinking – Polar reasoning in which knowledge and accounts of phenomena are viewed as either right or wrong with no in-between. – Typical of beginning college students. Relativistic Thinking – Most knowledge is viewed as relative, dependent on the situation and thinker; relativistic thinkers recognize that beliefs are subjective, that there are multiple perspectives on a given issue, and that all perspectives are defensible. Reflective Judgment The most mature type of reasoning. Reasoning that synthesizes contradictions among perspectives. Reflective judgment recognizes that options and opinions can be evaluated and generates criteria to do so. Table 13.2: Postformal Reasoning Pragmatic Thought The use of logic to address everyday problems. Entails acceptance of inconsistency and ambiguity. Managing various roles and tackling the problems of everyday life requires thinking that is flexible and accepting of contradiction. Reasoning in everyday situations is fused with emotion. Cognitive-Affective Complexity The capacity to be aware of emotions, integrate positive and negative feelings about an issue, and regulate intense emotions to make logical decisions about complicated issues. With gains in cognitive-affective complexity, young adults better understand others, including their perspectives, feelings, and motivations, which helps them to participate

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in social interactions, become more tolerant of other viewpoints, and to solve day-to-day problems. Developmental Impact of Attending College In 2013, about 66% of high school graduates in the U.S. enrolled in two- or four-year colleges. Students are encouraged to experiment with alternative values, behaviors, and beliefs. Fosters the development of postformal reasoning. Advanced moral reasoning. Advances in social development. VIDEO CASE Emerging Adulthood: Choosing a Major Nontraditional College Students 27% of college students are between ages 25 and 39 Returning to college often revolves around career reasons Characteristics of nontraditional college students: – Attend college part-time – Work full-time – Be financially independent – Have dependents Difficulties and Strengths of Nontraditional College Students Difficulties – Colleges are oriented toward traditional students (class times, access to advisors and student support services) Strengths – Show a readiness to learn and a problem-centered orientation toward learning that emphasizes acquiring the knowledge and skills needed for career advancement – More complex knowledge base from which to draw – Seeking meaning and applying what they learn Nontraditional College Student School Preferences Readily accessible Offer training relevant to their current life needs Cost-effective Flexible in course scheduling Supportive of adult lifestyle commitments The Forgotten Third Each year, about one third of high school graduates in the U.S. transition from high school to work without attending college. Considered “forgotten” because relatively few resources are directed toward learning about and assisting them. Reasons for not attending college include: – Economic barriers – Desire to work

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– Disinterest in academics VIDEO CASE Balancing College and Career in Emerging Adulthood Figure 13.4: Median Weekly Earnings by Education in 2014 (age 25 and older) Stages of Vocational Development – Crystallization (adolescence) • Think about careers in more complex ways. – Specification (18 to 21 years of age) • Identify specific occupational goals and pursue the education needed to achieve them. – Implementation (21 to 24 years of age) • Complete training, enter the job market, and make the transition to become an employee. – Stabilization (25 to 35 years of age) • Becoming established in a career. • Consolidation (age 35 and up) • Accumulate experience and advance up the career ladder • Table 13.3: Personality and Vocational Choice Contextual Influences on Vocational Choice – Parents tend to share personality characteristics and abilities with their children and influence educational attainment, which in turn influences career choice. – Parents act as role models. – Socioeconomic status and parents’ occupational field. – Parental expectations and encouragement for academic success and higherstatus occupations. – Parents may give different types of career encouragement and guidance to their daughters than they give to their sons. Occupational Expectations and Reality Daniel Levinson’s theory of development: Forming a dream (involves defining occupational expectations). – First, young adults attempt to achieve the dream and monitor their progress toward it. – Throughout adulthood, individuals modify their occupational expectations based on their experiences....