Chapter 2 Notes - Textbook: \"Experience Human Devlopment\" (Papalia & Martorell) PDF

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Textbook: "Experience Human Devlopment" (Papalia & Martorell)...

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Chapter 2: Theory and Research Basic Theoretical Issues ● theory: logically related concepts that seek to organize, explain, and predict data ○ explain development/predict behavior under certain conditions/see connections between isolated pieces of data ○ theory & research ■ theory inspires further research ● through hypothesis generating ○ explanations/predictions that can be tested ○ can be disproved but never proved ■ changed to incorporate new findings ● two basic issues that determine the way theorists explain development: ○ whether people are active or reactive in their own development ○ whether development is continuous or occurs in stages Issue 1: Is development active or reactive? ● John Locke: child is blank slate, upon which society write ○ depends on experiences ● Jean Jacques Rousseau: children are “noble savages” ○ according to their own positive natural tendencies if not corrupted by society ● reactive development: “hungry sponge,'' soaking up experiences and being shaped ● active development: experiences created for themselves and motivation to learn is present Mechanistic Model (Locke) ○ people are like machines ■ react to environmental input ■ response to a stimuli can be predicted ● Organismic Model (Rousseau) ○ growing organisms that initiate learning ○ driving force for change is internal ○ environmental influences speed or slow development, they do not cause ○ “progressive sequence of stages” Issue 2: Is development continuous or discontinuous? ● mechanists- continuous ○ quantitative change: changes in number or amount: height, weight, size of vocabulary ■ measuring the same things over time ● organicists- discontinuous ○ development at different points in life span ○ qualitative change: discontinuous changes in kind, structure, and organization ○ stages can’t be skipped and development is always going in a positive direction ●

Theoretical Perspectives ● psychoanalytic: unconscious emotions/drives ● learning: observable behavior ● cognitive: analyzes thought processes ● contextual: impact of historical, social, cultural context ● evolutionary/sociobiological: evolutionary and biological underpinnings of behavior Perspective 1: Psychoanalytic ● originator: Sigmund Freud ○ believed in reactive development and qualitative changes ○ humans born with certain drives, development is learning how to satisfy those drives ○ early experiences shape later functioning Sigmund Freud: Psychosexual Development ● id: governs newborns, operates under the pleasure principle (immediate satisfaction) ● ego: represents reason, reality principle, aims to find acceptable ways to gratify id ● superego: (age 5-6) includes conscience and socially approved do’s and don’ts, highly demanding ● “the ego mediates between the impulses of the id and the demands of the superego” ● personality forms through unconscious childhood conflicts and requirements of civilized life ○ occurs in 5 stages of psychosexual development (gratification shifts from mouth to anus to genitals) ■ fixation: arrest in development that affects adult personality ■ oral stage: feeding is main pleasure ■ anal stage: sensual gratification from holding and expelling feces ■ phallic stage: key event: boys attracted to mothers and girls to their fathers, agressive urges towards same-sex parent (Oedipus and Electra complexes) ■ latency stage: emotional calm and intellectual and social exploration ■ genital stage: sexual urges resurface and are aimed towards persons outside family ● Freud’s theories are rejected today but his central theme stays true (importance of unconscious thoughts, feelings, and motivations) Erik Erikson: Psychosocial Development ● Erikson modified and extended the Freudian theory ○ psychosocial development: 8 stages ■ each stage covers a major “crisis” (personality challenge) ■ each stage requires balancing a positive and a negative tendency Perspective 2: Learning ● learning: a long lasting change in behavior based on experience and adaption to the environment Behaviorism ● describes observed behavior as a predictable response to experience

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reactive and continuous associative learning: mental link is formed between two events ○ classical conditioning: a certain response to a stimulus is learned after repeated association with the stimulus ○ operant conditioning: learning based on association of behavior with its consequences ■ reinforcement: process by which behavior is strengthened (increases likelihood) ■ punishment: process by which behavior is weakened (decreases likelihood)

classical conditioning- a certain response to a stimulus is learned after repeated association with the stimulus ● operant conditioning- learning based on association of behavior with its consequences ○ reinforcement- process by which behavior is strengthened (increases likelihood) ○ punishment- the process by which behavior is weakened (decreases likelihood) ○ social learning (social cognitive) theory ■ behaviors are learned by observing and imitating models ■ Albert Bandura ■ reciprocal determinism- the person acts on the world as the world acts on the person ■ observational learning- learning through watching the behavior of others ■ self-efficacy- sense of one’s capability to master challenges and achieve goals Perspective 3: Cognitive ● thought processes and the behavior that reflects those processes ○ both organismic and mechanistically influenced theories Jean Piaget’s Cognitive-Stage Theory ● emphasis on mental processes ● discontinuous (occurs in stages) ● cognitive growth occurs through 3 interrelated processes: organization, adaption, equilibration ● solo minded process Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory ● stresses children’s active engagement with environment ● collaborative process (social interaction) ● emphasis on language ● adults/advanced peers must direct before child can master skill on their own ● zone of proximal development (ZPD): gap between what children can already do and they can accomplish with guidance (scaffolding) ●

The Information-Processing Approach ● studying mental processes used in perceiving/handling information ● not a single theory ● brain is compared to a computer- inputs and outputs (sensory impressions and behavior) ○ theorists study what happens between the two Perspective 4: Contextual ● individual is not separate from the world and just interacting with it, but an inseparable part of it ● biological theory (5 levels) ○ microsystem: everyday environment ○ mesosystem: interlocking of various microsystems ○ exosystem: interaction between microsystem and outside system or institution ○ macrosystem: overarching cultural patterns ○ chronosystem: adds dimension of time Perspective 5: Evolutionary/Sociobiological ● influenced by Darwin’s theory of evolution ● draws on findings of anthropology, ecology, genetics, ethology, and evolutionary psychology to explain behavior ● evolved mechanisms: behaviors developed to help solved problems ● ethology: the study of the adaptive behaviors of animal species in natural contexts ● proximity: seeking (“staying close to mommy”) A Shifting Balance ● theories shift and change ● today, more attention is focused on the biological and evolutionary bases of behavior ● behavior that shows continuity is studied and looked for ● bidirectional: people change their world even as it changes them Research Methods Quantitative and Qualitative Research ● quantitative: objectively measurable, numerical data ○ based on the scientific method ● qualitative: the how and why of behavior, non-numerical data, understandings, feelings, and beliefs ● quantitative researchers and qualitative researchers may study the same subject area, but their focus and perspectives differ ● selection of method depends on the purpose of the study Sampling ● sample: smaller group within the population ○ should accurately represent the whole ● samples are more focused in qualitative research

Forms of Data Collection ● one or more may be used ● qualitative- self-reports ● quantitative- standardized, structured methods Self-Reports: Diaries, Visual Techniques, Interviews, and Questionnaires ● simplest form is a diary or log ● young children- parental self-report ○ includes visual representation, like recording/videoing ● interview: questions about attitudes, opinions, behaviors ○ structured: same questions for everyone ○ open-ended: more flexible, varied topics ● how a question is asked can affect what the answer will be Naturalistic and Laboratory Observation ● naturalistic observation ○ people in real-life settings ○ behavior or environment is not altered by researchers ● laboratory observation ○ observe and record behavior in a controlled environment ● limitations- no explanation for why people behave the way they do, observer’s presence can alter behavior, observer bias Behavioral and Performance Measures ● operational definition: definition stated solely in terms of the operations or procedures used to produce or measure a phenomenon (makes it easier for other researchers to comment on or repeat the experiment) ● cognitive neuroscience: links understanding of cognitive functioning with what happens in brain Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research ● qualitative- research can examine a question in depth and detail, can be a rich source of insights, interaction between researchers and participants humanize the process, less rigorous, more subject to bias Basic Research Designs ● a plan for conducting an investigation ● 4 basic designs Case Studies ● in-depth study of a single individual ● flexible, can generate hypotheses ● may not generalize to others, conclusions not directly testable, can’t establish cause and effect Ethnographic Studies ● in-depth study of a culture or subculture ● can help overcome culturally based biases, tests universality ● subject to observer bias

Correlational Studies ● attempt to find positive or negative relationship between variables ● can suggest hypotheses ● can’t establish cause and effect Experiments ● controlled procedure ● cause and effect relationships, highly controlled, and can be repeated ● findings may not apply to situation outside of lab Groups and Variable ● division of the group ○ experimental: people exposed to treatment ○ control: people not exposed to treatment ● random assignment: assigning participants to groups in such a way that each person has an equal chance of being placed in any group Laboratory, Field, and Natural Experiments ● laboratory experiment: best for determining cause and effect, includes asking participants to enter lab with conditions controlled by researcher ● field experiment: controlled study in everyday setting with manipulated variable ● natural experiment: true experiment that studies certain events Developmental Research Designs ● cross-sectional study: most clearly illustrates similarities or differences among people of different ages ● longitudinal study: tracks people over time and focuses on individual change with age ● sequential study: combines the two approaches to minimize drawbacks of both Ethics of Research ● researchers are guided by 3 principles to avoid ethical conflicts ○ beneficence ■ obligation to maximize benefits and minimize harm ○ respect ■ for the protection of those who can’t exercise their own judgement ○ justice ■ the inclusion of diverse groups together with sensitivity to any special impact the research may have on them...