Chapter 6 8 9 Study Guide PDF

Preview

Summary

Study Guide for Chapter 6 Bones 170-181, Chapter 7 Joints and Chapter 8 Muscles and Muscle tissues 275-284...

Description

Study Guide: Objectives/Goals Chapter 6. Bone Fall ‘19 Read pages: 170-181 Student should be able To: 1. Describe the two main divisions of the skeleton and tell which division a bone is in ● 2 main divisions - axial & appendicular. ○ The axial includes the axis of the body which is the skull, vertebral column, rib cage. ○ The appendicular includes the limbs (arm + legs) and girdles that attach them to the axial skeleton (shoulder + pelvis) 2. name and describe the four classes (according to shape) of bones ● Long, short, flat, irregular 2 TYPES OF BONE TEXTURE: COMPACT & SPONGY 4. Describe the structure of compact bone ● Compact bone structure: smooth, dense, and solid looking - no significant open space 5. Describe the structure of spongy/cancellous bone. ● Honeycomb look, made of small needle-like or thin plates of bone called trabeculae (little beans) 6. Describe the gross structure of a long bone using appropriate terms. ● Have a diaphysis {dia - through, physis - growth} ○ thick, tubular hollow shaft of compact bone ○ hollow shaft is the medullary cavity & it’s filled with yellow marrow in adults ● with epiphysis {epi-upon} (expanded ends) ○ Outside is compact bone, and inside is spongy bone ○ Proximal and distal ends articulate with other bones to form joint covered with hyaline cartilage (cushions bones and absorbs stress) ● Epiphyseal plate (region is sometimes called metaphysis) ○ Between diaphysis and epiphysis of an adult long bone ○ Provides for growth in length ○ Plate ossifies (turns to bone) at the end of growth leaving a visible bony epiphyseal line ● Membranes ○ Periosteum {peri - around, osteo - bone} ■ Double layer covering long bones, except at articular ends (hyaline cartilage) ■ Fibrous outer layer - connective tissue that attaches tendons to bones ● All muscles are connected to bones by tendons ■ Osteogenic inner layer - for diameter bone growth and repair ■ Secured to the underlying bone via Sharpey’s fibers ○ Endosteum ■ CT membrane that covers internal bone surface ■ Lines medullary canal ■ Has tissue for bone growth and destruction

7. Describe the microscopic structure of compact bone, Haversian system/osteon ● Appears solid, but it has microscopically series of interconnected canals ● The structural unit of compact bone is called either the osteon or the Haversian system ○ Each osteon is an elongated cylinder oriented parallel to the long axis of the bone ■ Osteon is a group of hollow tubes of bone matrix, one placed outside the next like the growth rings of a tree trunk ○ Each matrix tube is called a lamella (little plate) ■ Each lamella collagen fibers run in the same direction, however adjacent lamellae collagen fibers run different directions from each other, which reinforces each other to resist twisting “Twister Resistor” ● In the center of each osteon is the Haversian canal (central canal) ○ Canal contains veins, arteries, and nerves ● Perforating canals/ Volkmann’s canals ○ Lie at right angles to the long axis of the bone ○ Connect central canals and medullary cavity ○ Lined with endosteum 8. Describe the structure of spongy/cancellous bone ● Looks poorly organized, but isn’t ● Trabeculae in spongy bone align precisely along lines of stress and help the bone resist stress as much as possible ○ Trabeculae contain irregularly arranged lamellae and osteocytes interconnected by canaliculi. No osteons are present. 9. Name and describe the organic components found in bone ● Living cells embedded in a mineralized organic matrix ○ 30% of that matrix is organic ■ 90% of that organic matrix is collagen ● Strands of collagen give the bone tensile strength ■ Other 10% of organic matrix is a liquid substance called ground substance 10. Name and describe the inorganic components found in bone ● 70% of matrix is inorganic ○ Primarily formed from salts of calcium and phosphate ■ The major salt is h  ydroxyapatite (Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2 ● Strong, durable crystals that last long after death - skeleton ■ Provides strength and hardness 11. Identify gross and microscopic structures from a diagram of a long bone (compact & spongy)

12. Be able to name which category (long, short, flat, irregular and sesamoid|) any bone would be found in.

13. Know where compact bone would be found in a typical long bone. ● Compact bone would be found in the diaphysis and spongy bone would be found in the epiphysis 14. Describe how the periosteum is secured to the underlying bone using perforating/Sharpe’s fibers. ● Sharpey’s fibers are a tuft of collagen fibers that extend from the periosteum into the bone matrix. The periosteum also provides anchoring points for tendons and ligaments; at these points the perforating fibers are really dense.

STUDY GUIDE CHAPTER 8 – JOINTS (Exam No. 2) Fal l2016 http://droualb.faculty.mjc.edu/Lecture%20Notes/Unit%202/chapter_8_articulations%20with%20fi gures.htm (helpful study guide found online also) STUDENT SHOULD BE ABLE TO: 1.Describe the criteria for establishing the two systems of classifying joints ● Classification by structure and function ○ Structural classification focuses on the material binding the bones together and whether or not a joint cavity is present ■ Fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial joints ○ Functional classification is based on the amount of movement allowed at the joint ■ 3 groups 2. Be able to name the 3 groups in the functional system of classifying joints and be able to briefly describe the characteristics of each group. 1. Synarthrosis: immovable joining {syn - together, arthro = joint} 2. Amphiarthrosis: slightly movable {amphi = on both sides} 3. Diarthrosis: movable {dia = through, apart} 4. Give another name for a joint ● Articulation site 5. List/describe the functions of a joint ● Skeletal movement, hold skeleton together and protect 7. Name and describe the three groups in the structural system of classifying joints and be able to briefly describe the characteristics of each group. ● Fibrous (typically not movable) ○ No joint cavity ○ Bones held together tightly with fibrous connective tissue and very little movement (synarthrosis/amphiarthrosis) ○ 3 types: sutures, syndesmosis, and gomphoses ● Cartilaginous (some rigid, some moveable) ○ No joint cavity ○ Articulating bones are held together tightly by cartilage with little to no movement ○ 2 common types: Synchondrosis or symphyses ● Synovial (typically freely movable) joints ○ Have fluid filled cavities ○ 6 characteristics 8. Describe a fibrous sutures and give examples ● (seams) interlocking jagged edges (jigsaw puzzle) ● Occur only between the bones of the skull 9. Describe a fibrous Syndesmoses, and give examples ● Connected only by ligaments {syndesmos=ligament} (cords or bands of fibrous tissue) ● Connecting fibers are always longer than those in sutures, but can vary in length

●

if short, little movement ○ Example: distal fibula and tibia ● If long, more movement ○ Ex: radius/ulna 10. Describe a fibrous gomphoses, and give examples ● Cone like “Peg in socket” fibrous joint ● Only Ex: periodontal ligament holds tooth in socket 11. Describe a cartilaginous synchondroses and give examples ● Where hyaline cartilage connects the bone ○ Ex: growth plate/ epiphyseal plate (temporary) ○ Ex: true ribs connected to the sternum 12. Describe a cartilaginous symphysis and give examples. ● Broad flat disc of fibrocartilage connects articulating bones {symphysis=growing together} ○ Ex: vertebral disc ○ Disc b/w left/right pubic bones ○ Menisci of knee 13. Be able to describe the 6 general distinguishing characteristics of a cartilaginous synovial joint 1. Articular hyaline cartilage a. Cushions for compression and friction free articultions (hyaline mixed with synovial fluid = no friction, bones move effortlessly) 2. Synovial cavity a. Filled with synovial fluid 3. Joint capsule Double layer a. External layer - tight, irregular CT continuous w/ bone periosteum i. Very strong, wrapped around bone b. Inner layer - synovial membrane makes synovial fluid i. Much more delicate 4. Synovial fluid a. Fills the cavity i. Like egg whites - very slipper fluid ii. Soaks into articular cartilage and then back out when under pressure 1. Ex: you are taller in the morning because articular cartilage absorbs extra fluid due to not moving around (no pressure) 5. Reinforcing (accessory ligaments) a. 3 types i. capsular/intrinsic: thickened part of capsule ii. Extracapsular: distinct, separate and outside of the capsule 1. Really big strong ligaments 2. Ex: knee iii. intracapsular : inside capsule but separate from the capsule wall 6. Nerves and blood vessels

a. Pain receptors b. proprioceptive : monitor position and stretch i. Constantly testing how many stretch in joints 14. Describe synovial fluid, including its source, and explain its function. ● Synovial fluid ○ Occupies all free spaces within the joint capsule ○ Derived largely by filtration from blood flowing through the capillaries in the synovial membrane ○ Has viscous, eggwhite consistency due to hyaluronic acid secreted by cells in synovial membrane, and thins and becomes less viscous as it warms during joint activity ○ Within the articular cartilages, provides a slippery weight-bearing film that reduces friction between the cartilages ■ soaks into articular cartilage and then back out when under pressure ● Ex: you are taller in the morning because articular cartilage 15. Name and describe the three reinforcing/accessory ligaments and give an example of each. ● 3 types ○ capsular/intrinsic: thickened part of the fibrous capsule ○ Extracapsular: distinct, separate and outside of the capsule ■ Really big strong ligaments ■ Ex: knee ○ intracapsular : inside capsule but separate from the capsule wall ■ Anterior and posterior cruciate ligaments of the knee ● 16. Be able to describe a bursa and explain its function. ● Flattened bags lined with synovial membrane and containing a thin film of synovial fluid ○ used to separate and cushion ligaments, muscles, tendons, bones, or skin, rub together to reduce friction 17. Be able to describe a tendon sheath and explain its function ● Tube-like bursae that surround tendons subjected to friction (like a bun around a hotdog); more flexibility to move back and forth ○ Separate tendons when crowded ○ Trigger finger ■ Tendon that controls finger, tendon sheaths become inflamed 18. Be able to describe, or perform, the common types of joint movements of the various joints and provide the proper name for any of these movements. ● Angular movement ○ Increase or decrease the angle between two bones ○ May occur in any plane of the body and include flexion, extension, hyperextension, abduction, adduction, and circumduction ● Gliding movement ○ Occurs when one flat or nearly flat bone surface glides or slips over another (back and forth or side to side)

○

Occur at the intercarpal and intertarsal joints, and b/w the flat, articular processes of the vertebrae ● Rotation ○ The turning of a bone around its own long axis ○ The only movement allowed between the first two cervical vertebrae and is common at the hip 19. Explain what is meant by range of motion (ROM) {synarthrosis=immovable joint, amphiarthrosis=slightly movable, diarthrosis=freely movable} ● Range of motion allowed by synovial joints varies from nonaxial movement (slipping movements only, since there is no axis around which movement can occur) to uniaxial movement (movement in one plane) to biaxial movement (movement in two planes) to multiaxial movement (movement in or around all three planes of space add axes) ● Range of motion varies from person to person ○ A trained gymnast or acrobat range of motion can be large ● Different joints have different range of motion, which means how free they are able to move and what type of movement they are capable of doing 20. Identify the opposing movement of any given body movement (ie: flexion/extension). ● Flexion - Extension ● Abduction - Adduction ● Pronation - Supination ● Dorsiflexion - Plantarflexion ● Inversion - Eversion ● Protraction - Retraction ● Elevation - Depression ● 21Explain the meaning of muscle origin and Insertion. ● Every muscle is attached to 2 or more bones with a joint in between ○ Origin is the attached bone that doesn’t move ○ Insertion is the bone that does move ● Movement occurs when muscles contract bringing the insertion towards the origin ● Movements are described in directional terms relative to the plane they move in freely 22 On a diagram or illustration of a general synovial joint, be able to identify: articular cartilage, joint(synovial) cavity, articular capsule (including fibrous and synovial layers), synovial fluid, reinforcing ligaments.

Chapter 9; Muscles and Muscle Tissue – Study Guide Fall 2018 Read: Pages; 275-284 ( to physiology of skeletal muscle) The student should be able to: 1. Explain where the name muscle comes from. ● Scientist long ago named them muscles because when you flex them they look like mice scurrying underneath the skin ● In Latin, “mus” means “little mouse” 2. State the percentage of weight in the human body that comes from muscle. ● At least 40% of body mass 3. State the three types of muscle found in the human body. ● Cardiac ● Smooth ● Skeletal 4. Give two root words that mean muscle and may be used as a prefix or suffix. ● Myo, mys (root words meaning muscle) & sarco (flesh) reference muscle 5. Describe where the three different muscle types are found. ● Skeletal muscle tissue - packed into the skeletal muscles, organs that attach to and cover the bony skeleton ● Cardiac muscle tissue - only in the heart ● Smooth muscle tissue - found in the walls of hollow visceral organs such as the stomach, urinary bladder, and respiratory passageways 6. List and describe the four characteristics of muscle tissue that allow muscle to perform its primary function. State the primary function. ● Excitability (responsiveness/ irritability) - ability to receive and respond to a stimulus, such as any change in the environment either inside or outside the body ● Contractility - the ability to shorten forcibly when adequately stimulated ● Extensibility - ability to be stretched or extended ● Elasticity - ability of a muscle cell to recoil and resume its resting length after being stretched ● Primary function: produces movement, maintains posture, stabilizes joints, generates heat 7. List and describe the three connective sheaths of muscle tissue and be able to identify them on an illustration or diagram. ● Epimysium {outside the muscle} - “overcoat” of dense irregular connective tissue that surround the whole muscle ● Perimysium and fascicles - W/in each skeletal muscle, muscle fibers are grouped into fascicles that look like a bundle of sticks. Surrounding each fascicle is a layer of fibrous connective tissue called perimysium {around the muscle [fascicles]} ● Endomysium {within the muscle} - wispy sheath of connective tissue that surrounds each individual muscle fiber. Consists of fine areolar connective tissue.

8. Explain what is meant by the phrase, all connective sheaths are connected. ● All these connective tissue sheaths are continuous with one another as well as with the tendons that join muscles to bones ● When muscle fibers contract, they pull on these sheaths, which in turn transmit the pulling force to the bone to be moved ● The sheaths contribute somewhat to the natural elasticity of muscle tissue, and also provide entry and exit routes for the blood vessels and nerve fibers that serve the muscle 9. Describe the relationship between muscle fascia and bone periosteum. ● In direct/fleshy muscle attachments, the epimysium of the muscle is fused to the periosteum of the bone or perichondrium of cartilage 10. Describe the similarities and differences between a tendon and an aponeurosis. ● A tendon is rope-like, while an a  poneurosis is sheet-like ● The tendon or aponeurosis both anchor the cell to the connective tissue covering of skeletal element (bone or cartilage) or to the fascia of other muscles 11. Explain what a muscle origin and an insertion is. ● Movable bone - insertion ● Immovable or less movable - origin 12. Describe the relationship of the size of a muscle cell and a regular body cell.

●

Skeletal muscle fibers are huge cells ○ Their diameter typically ranges from 10 to 100 micrometers - up to 10x the size of an average body cell ○ Length can be up to 30 cm long! 13. State the special name given to the cytoplasm of a muscle cell. ● sarcoplasm 14. Name the numerous contractile rods found within a muscle cell/fiber. ● Sarcomeres 15. Describe the relationship between the lengthy microfibrils and sarcomeres. ● Lengthy myofibrils consist of sarcomeres (smallest contractile unit of a muscle fiber) 16. Describe the two different contractile protein myofilaments make up the microfibril and there Relationship. ● Thin (actin) filaments and thick (myosin) filaments ● Thick myosin filaments make up the Dark A band ● Thin actin filaments make up the light I band ● Each thick filament is actually surrounded by a hexagonal arrangement of six thin filaments, and each thin filament is enclosed by three thick filaments 17. Give the name of the thick and thin myofilaments. ● Thin (actin) filaments and thick (myosin) filaments 18. Describe what happens to the sarcomere when the thin fibers slide to the center. ● Filament length remains the same, but the sarcomere shortens (thin fibers slide towards M line) ○ The I bands shorten, the distance between successive Z disks is reduced, the H zones disappear, and the continuous A bands move closer together but do not change in length ● The sliding filament of muscle contraction states that during contraction the thin filaments slide past the thick ones so that the actin and myosin filaments overlap to a greater degree 19. Describe the effect on the whole muscle when it’s component sarcomeres contract/get short. ● The muscle contracts 20. Describe the difference in the morphology of smooth muscle and skeletal muscle. ● Cardiac and skeletal muscle are both striated in appearance, while smooth muscle is not 21.Identiy. on the illustration below or one similar, Epimysium, tendon, perimysium, fascicle, endomysium and muscle fiber. ● See diagram on number 7 22. Explain what a meniscus is ● A meniscus is a crescent-shaped fibrocartilaginous anatomical structure that, in contrast to an articular disc, only partly divides a joint cavity. In humans they are present in the knee, wrist, acromioclavicular, sternoclavicular, and temporomandibular joints 23. Explain what a tendon sheath is

●

(Ch8) A tendon sheath is essentially an elongated bursa that wraps completely around a tendon subjected to friction like a bun around a hot dog.They are common where several tendons are crowded together within narrow canals (in the wrist region,for example). 24. Describe an aponeurosis. ● Fibrous or membranous sheet connecting a muscle and the part it moves 25. Name the thin connective tissue around a muscle cell/fiber. ● endomysium 26. Provide the term used for a muscle that is primarily used for a particular movement though other muscles may assist to a lesser extent ● (Ch 10) Synergists...