Chapter 8 Thinking, Intelligence, and Language Notes PDF

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Chapter 8 Thinking, Intelligence, and Language Notes

1. Cognitive Revolution in Psychology 1. Cognition 1. way info is processed/manipulated in remembering,thinking and knowing 2. 1950s speculation that computers might model some mental operations and would shed light on the workings of the human mind 3. Physical Brain-hardware 4. Cognition- software 5. Herbert Simon 1. Among pioneers in comparing human mind to computer 2. Sensory/Perceptual systems are input channel 6. Human mind is aware of itself 7. Cognitively Flexible- recognizing options are available and adapting to situation 8. Cognitive Psychology 1. Label for approaches seeking to explain observable behavior by investigating mental process and structures that we cannot directly observe 2. Includes study of consciousness, memory and cognitive neuroscience 2. Artificial Intelligence (AI) 1. Scientific field focusing on creating machines able to perform activities that require intelligence when people do them 2. Especially helpful in tasks that require speed, persistence and vast memory 3. Also assist in diagnosing medical illness, prescribing treatment, examining equipment failures, evaluating loan applicants and advising students about what courses to take 2. Thinking 1. Thinking 1. brain's processing 2. involves manipulating info mentally by forming concepts, solving problems, making decisions and reflecting in a critical or creative manner 2. Concepts 1. Fundamental aspect of thinking 2. Mental categories used to group objects, events and characteristics 3. Tells us what we think about 4. Ex. apples and oranges are both fruits 5. Four reasons concepts are important 1. Allow us to generalize 2. Allow us to associate experiences and objects 3. Aid memory by making it more efficient so we don't have to reinvent the wheel each time we come across a piece of information 4. Provides clues about how to react to certain objects or experiences 6. Prototype Model 1. Emphasizes that when people evaluate where a given item reflects a certain concept, they compare the item with the most typical item/s in that category and look for “family resemblance” w/ that item's properties 2. Maintains that people use characteristic properties to create a representation of average/ideal member (prototype) for each concept 3. Problem Solving 1. Finding an appropriate way to attain a goal when the goal isn't readily available

2. Effective Problem Solving often requires trying something new or outside the box 3. Multiple Steps: 1. Find and Frame Problems 1. Recognizing a problem 2. Involves asking questions in creative ways and “seeing” what others don't 2. Develop Good Problem Solving Strategies 1. Subgoals 1. intermediate goals/problems that we devise to put us in a better position for reaching a final goal/solution 2. working backwards in establishing subgoals 2. Algorithms 1. Strategies that guarantee a solution to a problem 2. come in diff. Forms- formulas, instructions and the testing of all possible solutions 3. Heuristics 1. shortcut strategies/guidelines that suggest a solution to a problem but don't guarantee an answer 2. More likely to solves problems w/ heuristics than w/ algorithms 3. help narrow down possible solutions and to find one quickly that works 4. differ from algorithms because they are fast, can lead to diff. answers to problems and do not always lead to a clear right answer 3. Evaluate Solutions 1. helps to have clear criterion/standard for effectiveness of solution 4. Rethink/Redefine Problems/Solutions over Time 1. continuous 4. Becoming Fixated 1. Strategies/Conclusions always open to revision 2. Fixation 1. involves using a prior strategy and failing to look at a problem from a fresh perspective 2. Functional fixedness 1. occurs when individuals fail to solve a problem because they are fixated on a thing's usual functions 2. Imagine having to hammer a nail but lacking a hammer. What to do? The functionally fixed person is stuck. If you have ever used a shoe to hammer a nail, you have overcome functional fixedness to solve a problem. 3. Maier String Problem 1. The problem is to figure out how to tie two strings together when you must stand in one spot and cannot reach both strings at the same time. It seems as though you are stuck. However, there is a pair of pliers on a table. 2. The solution is to use the pliers as a weight, tying them to the end of one string.Swing this string back and forth like a pendulum and grasp the stationary string. Your past experience with pliers and your fixation on their usual function make this a difficult problem to solve. To do so, you need to find an unusual use for the pliers—in this case, as a weight to create a pendulum. 5. Reasoning/Decision Making

1. Higher-order mental processes which require rich connections among neurons and ability to apply judgment 2. End result is evaluation, conclusion or a decision 3. Many psychologists similarly divide reasoning and decision making into two levels: 1. one that is automatic (system 1) 1. involves processing that is rapid, heuristic, associative, and intuitive 2. it entails following one’s hunches about a particular decision or problem 3. Intuitive processing may also have an important role to play in decision making 4. intuitive decision making can be less biased and more efficient in decision making 5. often rely on heuristics 2. one that is controlled (system 2) 1. slower, effortful, and analytical. 2. involves conscious reflection 4. Reasoning 1. mental activity of transforming info to reach a conclusion 2. uses reason (weighing arguments, applying rules of logic and coming up w/ sound conclusions) 3. Closely tied to critical thinking 4. Can be either: 1. Inductive Reasoning 1. reasoning from specific observations to make generalizations 2. “bottom-up processing” 3. Starting w/ incoming info and drawing conclusions 4. important way we form beliefs about the world 5. can credit great deal of scientific knowledge 6. Always involved in generalizations 2. Deductive Reasoning 1. reasoning from general principle we know to be true to specific instance 2. draw conclusions based on facts 3. when theories are used to make predictions and then evaluating those predictions by making further observations 4. when a hypothesis is developed from a theory 5. Decision Making 1. involves evaluating alternatives and choosing among them 2. unlike reasoning, established rules may not exist and consequences of decisions may not be known 3. less certain than reasoning 6. Biases and Heuristics 1. decision making strategies are usually well adapted to deal w/ problems 2. At times reliance on heuristics can lead to biased decisions/errors 3. Loss Aversion 1. one of most powerful biases 2. tendency to strongly prefer to avoid losses compared to acquiring gains 3. Endowment Effect 1. People ascribe greater value to things they already own compared to objects owned by someone else

1. ex. Some participants were shown a mug and were asked how much they would be willing to pay for it. Other participants were actually given the mug to keep and then were asked how much they would be willing to sell it for. In both groups the mugs were identical, simple coffee mugs with the university insignia on them. However, those who owned the mug believed it was worth over 3 dollars more than those who just looked it over. Somehow, just by owning it, it became more valuable. 4. Also explains why sometimes it is so hard to cut losses when losing a battle 5. Sunk Cost Fallacy 1. the fact people are reluctant to give up on a venture because of past investment 2. past investments bias judgment 3. throwing good money after bad 6. Confirmation bias (myside bias) 1. tendency to search and use info that supports personal ideas rather than refutes them 2. tendency to seek out and listen to people whose views confirm our own and avoiding those with opposite views can bias decisions 7. Hindsight Bias 1. Tendency to report falsely, after the fact, that we correctly predicted an outcome 2. “I knew it all along effect” 3. Reason for this bias is Availability Heuristic 1. A prediction about an event's probability based on ease of recalling/imagining similar events 2. we think that events cognitively available are more likely to happen 3. can reinforce generalizations about other people 4. Base Rate Neglect 1. tendency to ignore info about general principles in favor of very specific but vivid info 2. Ex. as a prospective car buyer, you read Consumer Reports and find that a panel of experts rates a particular vehicle exceptionally well. You might still be swayed in your purchasing decision, however, if a friend tells you about her bad experiences with that car. 5. Representative Heuristic 1. tendency to make judgments about group membership based on physical appearance or match between a person and one's stereotype of a group rather than the available base rate info 2. can be particularly damaging in the context of social judgments 6. Very bright people who can recognize biases in others may miss them in their own decisions, a phenomenon called bias blind spot 7. Thinking Critically and Creatively 1. Critical Thinking 1. thinking reflectively/productively and evaluating evidence 2. Critical thinkers grasp deeper meanings of ideas, question assumptions, and decide for themselves what to believe/do 3. Requires maintaining sense of humility 4. Vital to effective problem solving

5. Mindfulness 1. being alert and mentally present for one's everyday activities 2. Ellen Langer 1. mindfulness is key to critical thinking 2. Distinguishes mindful behavior from mindless behavior 1. both are automatic activities performed w/out thought 2. A mindless person engages in automatic behavior without careful thinking 3. A mindful person is engaged with the environment, responding in a thoughtful way to various experiences 6. Open Mindedness 1. being receptive to other ways of looking at things 2. can help keep individuals from jumping to conclusions 3. Actively open minded thinking 1. thinking that is flexible/open to questioning 2. tend to be less susceptible to biases 2. Creative Thinking 1. the ability to think about something in novel/unusual ways and devise unconventional solutions to problems 2. Sometimes characterized as : 1. Divergent Thinking 1. produces many solutions to same problem 2. Occurs during brainstorming 2. Convergent Thinking- produces best solution to a problem 3. Individuals who think creatively show certain characteristics: 1. Flexibility and playful thinking: Creative thinkers are flexible and play with problems. This trait gives rise to the paradox that, although creativity takes hard work, the work goes more smoothly if it is taken lightly 2. Inner motivation: Creative people often are motivated by the joy of creating. They tend to be less motivated by grades, money, or favorable feedback from others. Thus, creative people are inspired more internally than externally 3. Willingness to face risk: Creative people make more mistakes than their less imaginative counterparts because they come up with more ideas and more possibilities. 4. Objective evaluation of work: Most creative thinkers strive to evaluate their work objectively. They may use established criteria to make judgments or rely on the judgments of respected, trusted others. In this manner, they can determine whether further creative thinking will improve their work 3. Intelligence 1. Can apply to a behavior or a person 2. Cultures vary in definition of intelligence 3. Generally defined as an all purpose ability to do well on cognitive tasks, to solve problems and to learn from experience 4. Charles Spearman 1. introduced idea that intelligence captures common general ability that is reflected in performance on various cognitive tests

2. g- essentially assumes intelligent people are a jack of all cognitive trades 3. Both the Stanford-Binet and the Wechsler scales provide measures of Spearman’s g 5. Measuring Intelligence 1. Intelligence Quotient (IQ) 1. score produced from a test 2. Test created by Alfred Binet known as Stanford-Binet 1. Created the concept of mental age 1. an individual’s level of mental development relative to that of others 2. Reasoned that, because cognitive ability increases with age, we might expect a child with an intellectual disability to perform like a normally developing child of a younger age. 3. MA-Mental Age; CA-Chronological Age 3. William Stern 1. devised the term intelligence quotient 2. IQ consists of an individual’s mental age divided by chronological age multiplied by 100 3. IQ=(MA/CA)x100 2. Criteria for good Intelligence Test: 1. Validity 1. the extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure 2. important indicators of validity is the degree to which it predicts an individual’s performance when that performance is assessed by other measures of the attribute 3. When scores on a measure relate to important outcomes,the test has high criterion validity 4. refers to the extent to which a scale measures what it purports to measure. 2. Reliability 1. the extent to which a test yields a consistent, reproducible measure of performance (test produces same result over and over) 2. Related to validity but they are not the same thing 3. refers only to the stability of scores on a test over time. 3. Standardization 1. involves developing uniform procedures for administering and scoring a test, as well as creating norms for the test. 2. Norms 1. Performance Standards 2. created by giving the test to a large group of people who are representative of the population for whom the test is intended 3. tell us which scores are considered high, low, or average 3. Wechsler Scales 1. David Wechsler 2. Currently the most popular measure of intelligence 3. 3 versions of scale: 1. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale 2. Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children 3. Wechsler Pre-School and Primary Scale of Intelligence 4. 16 and older- scale includes vocabulary, working memory capacity, math problems, and the ability to complete jigsaw puzzles

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5. Children between 6-16- scale includes vocabulary and comprehension but also tasks such as putting together blocks to fit a particular pattern 6. Children as young as 2 1/2- asked to point to a picture that depicts a word the examiner says, to complete a block design, and to answer basic knowledge questions 7. Distribution 1. frequencies of various scores on a scale 2. Normal Distribution 1. symmetrical, bell shaped curve w/ majority of scores falling in middle of possible range and few scores appearing towards range's extremes Cultural Bias in Testing 1. Culture Fair Tests 1. intelligence tests intended to be culturally unbiased 2. most intelligence tests reflect what is important to dominant culture 3. Sternberg/colleagues 1. because of difficulties creating non biased test, concluded there are no culture-fair tests, only culture reduced tests 4. Education/ other environmental factors may influence intelligence Genetic/Environmental Influences on Intelligence 1. Genes influence intelligence 1. Heritability 1. used to describe extent to which observable difference among people in a group (phenotype) can be explained by genetic differences of group's members (genotype) 2. tells us how much of the differences we observe in intelligence is due to differences in genes 3. A proportion where highest degree is 100% 4. Research has involved comparing phenotype similarities of identical/monozygotic twins to that of fraternal/dizygotic twins 5. Describes groups not individuals 6. Environment still matters and can affect IQ: 1. Dietary supplements: ex. Omega-3 2. Educational interventions:early childhood education can improve the IQ 3. Interactive reading: means that parents ask open-ended questions, encourage a child to read, and engage with the child actively about what they are reading together 4. Preschool 2. Flynn effect 1. One effect of education on intelligence is evident in rapidly increasing IQ test scores around the world 2. Applies even to those w/ very high IQs 3. Environment Influences 1. Complex Extremes of Intelligence 1. Gifted 1. have high intelligence 9IQ of 130 or higher) 2. also may have superior talent in certain area 3. Social Perception may be needed to identify gifted people 1. can be influenced by stereotypes Intellectual Disability

1. Intellectual Development Disorder 2. Condition of limited mental ability affecting 3 domains: 1. Conceptual Skills- language, reading, writing, math, reasoning, and memory 2. Social skills- empathy, social judgment, interpersonal communication, ability to make friends 3. Practical Skills- self-management of personal care, job responsibilities, money management, recreation, and organizing school/work tasks 3. Assessments of capacities in these areas can be used as a gauge of the person's ability to function in daily living 4. May have organic cause or may be cultural/social in origin 5. Organic Intellectual Disability 1. caused by genetic disorder or brain damage 2. organic=tissues/organs of body 3. Ex. Down Syndrome 4. IQ usually between 0 and 50 6. Cultural-Familial Intellectual Disability 1. mental deficit w/ no evidence of organic brain damage 2. IQ between 55 and 70 3. suspect that mental deficits are result in part from growing up in below-average intellectual environment 7. Several cases of intellectual disability 8. Theories of Multiple Intelligences 1. Sternberg's Triarchic Theory/Gardner's Multiple Intelligences 1. Triarchic Theory of Intelligence 1. intelligence comes in multiple (3) forms: 1. Analytical Intelligence- ability to analyze, judge, evaluate, compare/contrast 2. Creative Intelligence-create, design, invent, originate, imagine 3. Practical Intelligence-apply, implement and put ideas into practice 2. Gardner's Frames of mind 1. Nine types of intelligence: 1. Verbal- ability to think in words/use language to express meaning ex. author 2. Mathematical-ability to carry out mathematical operations ex. scientist 3. Spatial- ability to think three dimensionally ex. architect 4. Bodily-kinesthetic- ability to manipulate objects and to be physically adept ex. dancer 5. Musical- ability to be sensitive to pitch, melody, rhythm and tone ex. composer 6. Interpersonal-ability to understand/interact effectively w/ others ex. teacher 7. Intrapersonal- ability to understand oneself ex. psychologist 8. Naturalist- ability to observe patterns in nature and understand natural and human made systems ex. botanist 9. Existentialist- ability to grapple w/ big questions of human existence, I.e meaning of life/death, w/ special sensitivity to issues of spirituality ex. philosopher 2. Everyone had all these intelligences to a varying degree 3. Evaluating Multiple Intelligences Approaches

1. Challenging physical activity is associated w/ improved cognitive performance 2. Engaging in complex cognitive tasks can improve reasoning ability over time 4. Language and Cognition 1. Role of Language in Cognition 1. Whorf 1. argued language determines way we think called linguistic relativity hypothesis 1. may be accurate of info presented to brain's left hemisphere 2. Role of Cognition in Language 1. feature of human language that is unique is the ability to talk about objects not longer present 2. Executive function- the array of complex abilities including exerting control over one's mental processes 1. Bilingual people have improved executive function compared to monolingual people though it has very limited task association 3. Biological/Environmental Influences on Language 1. Biological Influences 1. brain, nervous system and vocal apparatus-required biologically for language 2. Language Universals 1. Noam Chomsky 1. argued that humans are born biologically prewired to learn language at a certain time and in a certain way 2. strongest evidence for this is that children all over reach language milestones at about the same time and in about the same order despite the variations in their environments 3. thought children cannot learn full rules/structures of languages by only imitating what they hear and so nature must provide children w/ a biological, prewired universal grammar 3. Language and the Brain 1. brain has regions predisposed to language use 2. la...