Chapter 9 - Lecture notes 9 PDF

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9.1 Understanding Motivation Distinguish between intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation ● ● Motivation is the process by which activities are started, directed, and sustained so that physical and psychological needs are fulfilled. ● Extrinsic motivation- type of motivation in which a person performs an action because it leads to an outcome that is separate from or external to the person ● Intrinsic motivation- occurs when people act because the act itself is satisfying or rewarding, whereas extrinsic motivation occurs when people receive an external reward (such as money) for the act.

9.2 Early Approaches to Understanding Motivation Identify the key elements of the early instinct and drive-reduction approaches to motivation. ● Instinct approaches proposed that some human actions may be motivated by instincts, which are innate patterns of behavior found in both people and animals. ● Instincts- the biologically determined and innate patterns of behavior that exist in both people and animals ● Need- a requirement of some material (such as food or water) that is essential for survival of the organism ● Drive-reduction approaches state that when an organism has a need (such as hunger), the need leads to psychological tension that motivates the organism to act, fulfilling the need and reducing the tension. ● Drive- a psychological tension and physical arousal arising when there is a need that motivates the organism to act in order to fulfill the need and reduce the tension ● Drive-reduction theory- approach to motivate that assumes behavior arises from psychological needs that cause internal drive to push the organism to satisfy the need and reduce tension and arousal ● Primary drives involve needs of the body, whereas acquired (secondary) drives are those learned through experience. Homeostasis is the tendency of the body to maintain a steady state. ● Primary drives- those drives that involve needs of the body such as hunger and thirst ● Homeostasis- the tendency of the body to maintain a steady state4

9.3 Different Strokes for Different Folks: Psychological Needs Explain the characteristics of the three types of needs. ● The need for affiliation is the desire to have friendly social interactions and relationships with others as well as the desire to be held in high regard by others. ● Need for affiliation- the need for friendly social interactions and relationships with others ● Need for power- the need to have control or influence over others ● The need for power concerns having control over others, influencing them, and having an impact on them. Status and prestige are important to people high in this need. ● Need for achievement- a need that involves a strong desire to succeed in attaining goals, not only realistic ones but also challenging ones ● The need for achievement is a strong desire to succeed in achieving one’s goals, both realistic and challenging. ● The self-theory of emotion links the need for achievement to the concept of locus of control. A belief in control over one’s life leads to more attempts to achieve, even in the face of failure. Those who believe that they have little control over what happens to them are more likely to develop learned helplessness.

9.4 Arousal and Incentive Approaches Identify the key elements of the arousal and incentive approaches to motivation. ● In arousal theory, a person has an optimal level of arousal to maintain. People who need more arousal than others are called sensation seekers. ● Stimulus motive- a motive that appears to be unlearned but causes an increase in stimulation, such as curiosity ● Arousal theory- theory of motivation in which people are said to have an optimal (best or ideal) level of tension that they seek to maintain by increasing or decreasing stimulation ● Yerkes-Dodson law- law stating that when tasks are simple, a higher level of arousal leads to better performance; when tasks are difficult, lower levels of arousal lead to better performance

● Sensation seeker- someone who needs more arousal than the average person ● Incentives- things that attract or lure people into action ● Incentive approaches- theories of motivation in which behavior is explained as a response to the external stimulus and its rewarding properties ● In the incentive approach, an external stimulus may be so rewarding that it motivates a person to act toward that stimulus even in the absence of a drive.

9.5 Humanistic Approaches Describe how Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and self-determination theories explain motivation. ● Maslow proposed a hierarchy of needs, beginning with basic physiological needs and ending with transcendence needs. The more basic needs must be met before the higher needs can be fulfilled. ● Self-actualization- according to Maslow, the point that is seldom reached at which people have sufficiently satisfied the lower needs and achieved their full human potential ● Peak experiences- according to Maslow, times in a person’s life during which self-actualization is temporarily achieved ● Self-determination theory- theory of human motivation in which the social context of an action has an effect on the type of motivation existing for the action ● Self-determination theory (SDT) is a model of motivation in which three basic needs are seen as necessary to an individual’s successful development: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. ● Order of pyramid top down ○ Transcendence needs- to find spirtitual meaning beyond one’s immediate self ○ Self-actualization- to find self-fulfillment and realize one’s potential ○ Aesthetic needs- to appreciate symmetry, order, and beauty ○ Cognitive needs- to know, understand, and explore ○ Esteem needs- to achieve, be competent, gain approval and recognition ○ Belongingness and love needs- to be with others, be accepted, and belong ○ Safety needs- to feel secure and safe, out of danger ○ Physiological needs- to satisfy hunger, thirst, fatigue, etc.

9.6 What, Hungry Again? Why People Eat Identify the physical and social factors that influence hunger. ● The physiological components of hunger include signals from the stomach and the hypothalamus and the increased secretion of insulin. ● Insulin- a hormone secreted by the pancreas to control the levels of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates in the body by reducing the level of glucose in the bloodstream ● Glucagon- hormone that is secreted by the pancreas to control the level of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates in the body by increasing the level of glucose in the bloodstream ● Leptin- a hormone that, when released into the bloodstream, signals the hypothalamus that the body has had enough food and reduces the appetite while increasing the feeling of being full ● When the basal metabolic rate slows down, the weight set point increases and makes weight gain more likely. ● Weight set point- the particular level of weight that the body tries to maintain ● Basal metabolic rate- the rate at which the body burns energy when the organism is resting ● The social components of hunger include social cues for when meals are to be eaten, cultural customs and food preferences, and the use of food as a comfort device or as an escape from unpleasantness. ● Some people may be externals who respond to the anticipation of eating by producing an insulin response, increasing the risk of obesity.

9.7 Obesity Recognize some of the factors that contribute to obesity. ● There are genetic and hormonal factors that can influence obesity. ● Maladaptive eating may lead to obesity. ● A third of the population of the United States is obese.

Emotion 9.8 Describe the three elements of emotion. ● Emotion is the “feeling” aspect of consciousness and includes physical, behavioral, and subjective (cognitive) elements. ● Emotion- the “feeling” aspect of consciousness, characterized by a certain

physical arousal, a certain behavior that reveals the emotion to the outside world, and an inner awareness of feelings ● Display rules- learned ways of controlling displays of emotion in social settings ● Physical arousal is tied to activation of the sympathetic nervous system. ● The amygdala plays a key role in emotional processing.

9.9 Early Theories of Emotion Distinguish among the common-sense, James-Lange, Cannon-Bard, and facial feedback theories of emotion. ● The common-sense theory of emotion states that an emotion is experienced first, leading to a physical reaction and then to a behavioral reaction. ● James-Lange theory of emotion- theory in which a physiological reaction leads to the labeling of an emotion ● The James-Lange theory states that a stimulus creates a physiological response that then leads to the labeling of the emotion. ● Cannon-Bard theory of emotion- theory in which the physiological reaction and the emotion are assumed to occur at the same time ● The Cannon-Bard theory asserts that the physiological reaction and the emotion are simultaneous, as the thalamus sends sensory information to both the cortex of the brain and the organs of the sympathetic nervous system. ● Facial feedback hypothesis- theory of emotion that assumes that facial expressions provide feedback to the brain concerning the emotion being expressed, which in turn causes and intensifies the emotion ● In the facial feedback hypothesis, facial expressions provide feedback to the brain about the emotion being expressed on the face, intensifying the emotion.

9.10 Cognitive Theories of Emotion Identify the key elements in the cognitive arousal and cognitive-mediational theories of emotion. ● In Schachter and Singer’s cognitive arousal theory, both the physiological arousal and the actual interpretation of that arousal must occur before the emotion itself is experienced. This interpretation is based on cues from the environment. ● Cognitive arousal theory (two-factor theory)- theory of emotion in which both

the physical arousal and the labeling of that arousal based on cues from the environment must occur before the emotion is experienced ● Cognitive-mediational theory- theory of emotion in which a stimulus must be interpreted (appraised) by a person in order to result in a physical response and an emotional reaction ● In the cognitive-mediational theory of emotion, the cognitive component of emotion (the interpretation) precedes both the physiological reaction and the emotion itself.

Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: When Motivation Is Not Enough 9.11 Summarize the five steps of the GTD method. ● Time- or task-management systems can help you keep track of commitments and accomplish specific tasks and general goals. ● The stages of the Getting Things Done (GTD) method involve capturing, processing, organizing, reviewing, and doing the tasks you have committed to. ● Motivation and emotion are sometimes not enough to prompt human behavior....