Chapter II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES PDF

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Chapter II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES This segment of the study portrays the studies and literature carrying similarities and differences with the study being conducted. They were derived from the readings made from books and other printed sources, from unpublished studies – thesis and...

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Chapter II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES Custodio Melvin

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Chapter II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES This segment of the study portrays the studies and literature carrying similarities and differences with the study being conducted. They were derived from the readings made from books and other printed sources, from unpublished studies – thesis and dissertation, and from electronic sources. These review materials assisted much in providing insights and learning to tally complete the study in concentration.

A. Related Literature Foreign Historically, during the 1970s when the self-monitoring concept was introduced it became part of two larger ongoing debates. Within personality research there was the tension between traits and situation; one could think of this as the nature versus nurture debate. The self-monitoring construct offered a resolution to this debate because there was no need to argue that humans needed to fit entirely into the nature or nurture paradigm. High self-monitors were better predicted by their environment (situation/nurture) while low selfmonitors were better predicted by their traits (traits/nature). Another debate that was raging during this time period within social psychology was whether or not

9 attitudes were good predictors of behavior. The self-monitoring construct offered a resolution to this debate as well because it posited that low selfmonitors would behave largely consistent with their attitudes, while attitudes would be poor predictors of behavior for high self-monitors. The self-monitoring construct fit neatly into the arguments of the day where high self-monitors affirmed the situation-oriented view typically associated with social psychology, while the low self-monitors affirmed the trait-oriented view typically associated with personality psychology. Self-monitoring is useful for students from preschool to adulthood and can be taught to individuals at a variety of levels of cognitive functioning. Selfmonitoring interventions foster independent functioning, which allows individuals with disabilities to rely less on prompts from others (Koegel, Koegel, Harrower, & Carter, 1999). Self-monitoring interventions are among the most flexible, useful, and effective strategies for students with academic and behavioral difficulties (Mitchum, Young, West, & Benyo, 2001). They have demonstrated efficacy for targeting a range of academic abilities (Rock, 2005), self- help skills (Pierce & Schreibman, 1994), behavioral problems (Todd, Horner, & Sugai, 1999), and social behaviors (Strain & Kohler, 1994). Students with behavioral and academic

10 difficulties typically have limited awareness and understanding of their own behavior and its effects on others. Self-monitoring interventions equip students to recognize and keep track of their own behavior (Hoff & DuPaul, 1998; Rhode, Morgan, & Young, 1983). Using these strategies, students can learn to identify and increase positive, prosocial behaviors, the behaviors necessary for success in general education settings. Self-monitoring strategies are individualized plans used to increase independent functioning in academic, behavioral, self-help, and social areas. Selfmonitoring strategies develop skills that lead to an increase in appropriate behavior. When self-monitoring skills increase, corresponding reductions in undesired behaviors often occur, even without direct intervention (Dunlap, Clarke, Jackson, Wright, 1995; Koegel, Koegel, Harrower, & Carter, 1999). The five steps involved in planning a self-monitoring intervention: 1. Identify the target behavior. 2. Select/design a self-monitoring system. 3. Choose reinforcers and how the student will earn them. 4. Teach the student to use the system. 5. Fade the role of the adult in the intervention. Mark Snyder originally developed a scale to measure whether people were high or low self-monitors in 1974 as a 25-item measure. In his original study he found that Stanford University students scored significantly higher on the scale than did psychiatric inpatients, but significantly lower than people in the acting

11 profession. The scale was revised into an 18-item measure that is considered psychometrically superior to the original scale and has been used extensively in self-monitoring studies. There has developed great debate over whether or not the self-monitoring scale is a unitary phenomenon. During the 1980s, factor analysis postulated that the self-monitoring scale was actually measuring several distinct dimensions. The three-factor solution was the most common and usually interpreted as Acting, Extraversion, and Other-Directedness (see willingness to communicate). There has developed consensus about the multifactorial nature of the items on the self-monitoring scale; however, there remains differing interpretations about whether or not that jeopardizes the validity of the selfmonitoring concept. A score of 0-12 on Snyder's scale indicates low self-monitoring, while a score of 13-25 indicates high self-monitoring. Some traits of high self-monitors include readily and easily modifying their behavior in response to the demands of the situation, whereas low self-monitors care little about modifying their behavior in response to the situation and tend to maintain the same opinions and attitudes regardless of the situation. High self-monitors find it much easier to modify their behavior based on the situation than low self-monitors do. High self-monitors would be more likely to change their beliefs and opinions depending on who they're talking to, while low self-monitors would tend to be

12 consistent throughout all situations. This has been studied mainly in correspondence with relationships. Compared to Low self-monitors, High selfmonitors will have more dating and sexual partners, are more interested in having sex with people they are not in love with, and are more likely to have had sex with someone only once, as well as be more likely to deceive potential romantic partners. High self-monitors are more likely to choose a romantic partner who is attractive but unsociable, while low self-monitors are more likely to choose a partner who is unattractive but sociable. High self-monitors are also more likely to take on leadership positions than low self-monitors. Gudykunst et al, (1987) argued that individualism should influence selfmonitoring. Cultures high on individualism focus on the self, not others. In individualistic cultures, knowing the context is not necessary to predict others' behavior, thus people from individualistic cultures are more likely to be low selfmonitors. Cultures low on individualism (i.e., collectivist cultures), in contrast, value conformity to ingroups and group memberships. In collectivistic cultures, knowing the context and social status of the other person is essential to predicting his or her behavior, thus people from collectivistic cultures are more likely to be high self-monitors. Local

13 Filipinos are generally good at English. At least that s the impression foreigners get when they encounter us. It is also one of the primary reasons why foreign employers like hiring Filipinos. It is well-established that English has made its way into the world as a sort of lingua franca, and we wield it as an advantage for now. Charisse M. Tocmo stated that the Philippines is always referred to as an English-Speaking country. Amidst of the Mother Tongue Based Education Program of Department of Education, still, some schools implement the English Policy. English as a medium of instruction, practice in developing a competitive individual being thrown in the land of competition and are more prioritize in applying a job here and abroad. An institution is in charge of the student s additional knowledge and learning as well as opening a door towards chances. Have we notice? That a student came from a school, wherein English is the medium of instruction, is competitive is speaking the language than those who are not? Carlos Conde of Davao City Philippines in his article Erosion of English

Skills Threatens Growth in the Philippines states that the deterioration of English proficiency has been linked to an overall decline in Philippine education. Accordingly, there s a recent government study that shows only seven 7 percent of high school graduates can properly read, speak or understand English, and

14 poorly trained teachers are partly blame. Education is a key to success. We should go with the flow of change and competence, throwing our best assets; OURSELVES. In this world of competition, it is ourselves that we cling to. Be practical. Don t be the last in the human race. Being proficient in English language can make anybody to be in any place, can prosper a business and has an edge to anyone. Synthesis The foreign and local research literature have some connection with this study for they dealt with the correlation of self-monitoring and the English proficiency of students. The ideas provided by the foregoing review of literature will help the researchers in the conceptualization of the study. The above literature provides a background on the concept of selfmonitoring and English proficiency correlations. With the works of Mark Synder, he stated the self-monitoring is useful in the present study for teaching to individuals at a variety of levels of cognitive functioning. It fosters independent functioning, which allows individuals with disabilities to rely less on prompts from others. Using self-monitoring strategies, students can learn to identify and increase positive, pro-social behaviors, the behaviors necessary for success in general education settings. They are individualized plans used to increase independent functioning in academic,

15 behavioral, self-help and social areas and develop skills that lead to an increase in appropriate behavior.

B. Related Studies Foreign Research has demonstrated a number of ways in which high and low selfmonitors differ. Some studies gathered descriptions of these people from those who know them well in daily life. Funder and Harris (1986) have found out that high self-monitors were more likely than low self-monitors to be described by those who knew them with Q-sort items such as 

Skilled in social techniques of imaginative play, pretending, and humor (e.g., is good at charades)



Talkative



Self-dramatizing, histrionic (exaggerates emotion)



Initiates humor



Verbally fluent



Expressive in face and gestures



Having social poise and presence

Low self-monitors, by contrast were more likely to be described as 

Distrustful

16 

Perfectionist



Touchy and irritable



Anxious



Introspective



Independent



Feeling cheated and victimized by life It is clear from these lists that high self-monitors are described more

favorably and are more popular than low self-monitors. However, according to the construct, the difference arises because being positively regarded and popular is more important to high self-monitors. So although the description of low self-monitors might seem more negative, the low self-monitor probably doesn t care – other things such as independence are more important to him or her. A second kind of research borrows a leaf from the empiricists book by comparing the self-monitoring scores of members of different criterion groups – groups that, if the theory of self-monitoring were correct, would be expected to score differently. For instance, Synder (1974) administered his scale to professional stage actors. Because their profession involves putting on a persona called for by the script, he expected them to score high in his scale – and they did. He also examined hospitalized mental patients, who typically are hospitalized

17 because their behavior has been highly inappropriate. Synder expected them to get low scores on self-monitoring – and they did. (Please note: this does not mean that low self-monitors are mentally ill. Synder also performed some interesting experiments. He asked his participants to read the following passage into a tape recorder: I m going out now, I won t be back all day. If anyone comes by, just tell them I m not here. Each participant had to read this passage six times, while trying to project one of a number of emotions – happiness, sadness, anger, fear, disgust, and remorse – by using tone of voice, pitch, speed of talking, and so forth. It turns out to be easier to figure out which emotion is being projected when the reader is a high self-monitor (Synder, 1974). Studies have demonstrated relationships between self-monitoring scores and numerous other behaviors. For example, compared to low self-monitors, high self-monitors perform better in job interviews (Osborn, Field, & Veres, 1998), place themselves in central positions in social networks (Mehra, Kilduff, & Brass, 2001), use more strategies to influence their co-workers (Caldwell & Burger, 1997), are willing to lie in other to get a date (Rowatt, Cunningham, & Druen, 1998), and even masturbate more often (Trivedi & Sabini, 1998). Recent research also indicates that self-monitoring is related to the experience of emotion. In one study, men put on headphones and heard a tape

18 of heartbeats that they were told (falsely) were their own, and then were shown a series of pictures of women. High self-monitors reported feeling most attracted to the women whose pictures were shown when they thought their hearts had sped up. Low self-monitors were less likely to be influenced by the bogus heartrate feedback. In a second study, high self-monitors thought that jokes were funnier if they heard a laugh track along with it; low self-monitors were less prone to this effect (Graziano & Bryant, 1998). These findings imply that high selfmonitors look to the environment for clues as to how they are feeling, whereas low self-monitors are more prone to look within. Self-monitoring is a theory that deals with the phenomena of expressive controls. Human beings generally differ in substantial ways in their abilities and desires to engage in expressive controls. People concerned with their expressive self-presentation tend to closely monitor their audience in order to ensure appropriate or desired public appearances. Self-monitories try to understand how individuals and groups will perceive their actions. Some personality types commonly act spontaneously and others are more apt to purposely control and consciously adjust their behavior. Self-monitoring, is defined as, a personality trait that refers to an ability to regulate behavior to accommodate social situations. High self-monitors can be thought of as social pragmatists who project images in an attempt to impress others and receive positive feedback. Conversely, low self-

19 monitors do not participate, to the same degree, in expressive control and do not share similar concern for situational appropriateness. Low self-monitors tend to exhibit expressive controls congruent with their own internal states; i.e. beliefs, attitudes, and dispositions regardless of social circumstance. Low self-monitors are often less observant of social context and consider expressing a selfpresentation. (Synder, 1987) Language Teaching Methods. Presented here is a summary of eight language teaching methods in practice today: the Grammar-Translation Method, the Direct Method, the Audio-Lingual Method, the Silent Way, Suggestopedia, Community Language Learning, the Total Physical Response Method, and the Communicative Approach. Of course, what is described here is only an abstraction. How a method is manifest in the classroom will depend heavily on the individual teacher's interpretation of its principles. Some teachers prefer to practice one of the methods to the exclusion of others. Other teachers prefer to pick and choose in a principled way among the methodological options that exist, creating their own unique blend. Grammar-Translation Method. It focuses on developing students' appreciation of the target language's literature as well a teaching the language. Students are presented with target-language reading passages and answer questions that follow. Other activities include translating literary passages from

20 one language into the other, memorizing grammar rules, and memorizing nativelanguage equivalents of target language vocabulary. Class work is highly structured, with the teacher controlling all activities.

Direct Method. It allows students to perceive meaning directly through the language because no translation is allowed. Visual aids and pantomime are used to clarify the meaning of vocabulary items and concepts. Students speak a great deal in the target language and communicate as if in real situations. Reading and writing are taught from the beginning, though speaking and listening skills are emphasized. Grammar is learned inductively.

Audio-Lingual Method. It is based on the behaviorist belief that language learning is the acquisition of a set of correct language habits. The learner repeats patterns until able to produce them spontaneously. Once a given pattern – for example, subject-verb-prepositional phrase – is learned, the speaker can substitute words to make novel sentences. The teacher directs and controls students' behavior, provides a model, and reinforces correct responses.

The Silent Way. The theoretical basis of Gattegno's Silent Way is the idea that teaching must be subordinated to learning and thus students must develop their own inner criteria for correctness. All four skills – reading, writing, speaking, and listening – are taught from the beginning. Students' errors are expected as a

21 normal part of learning: the teacher's silence helps foster self-reliance and student initiative. The teacher is active in setting up situations, while the students do most of the talking and interacting.

Suggestopedia. Lozanov's method seeks to help learners eliminate psychological barriers to learning. The learning environment is relaxed and subdued, with low lighting and soft music in the background. Students choose a name and character in the target language and culture, and imagine that person. Dialogs are presented to the accompaniment of music. Students just relax and listen to them being read and later playfully practice the language during an activation phase. Community Language Learning. In Curren's method, teachers consider students as whole persons, with intellect, feelings, instincts, physical responses, and desire to learn. Teachers also recognize that learning can be threatening. By understanding and accepting students' fears, teachers help students feel secure and overcome their fears, and thus help them harness positive energy for learning. The syllabus used is learner-generated, in that students choose what they want to learn in the target language.

Total Physical Response Method. Asher's approach begins by placing primary importance on listening comprehension, emulating the early stages of

22 mother tongue acquisition, and then moving to speaking, reading, and writing. Students demonstrate their comprehension by acting out commands issued by the teacher; teachers provide novel and often humorous variations of the commands. Activities are designed to be fun and to allow students to assume active learning roles. Activities eventually include games and skits...