CHD 3243 - Exam 2 Notes PDF

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lecture notes for Dr. Emily Purvis Montford's exam 2...

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Exam 2 – Tuesday, November 3 Chapt er s611

Chapter 6: Self-Concept, Identity, Ethnicity, and Gender 

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Self-Concept and Self-Esteem o The self o Self-concept – a cognitive perception and assessment of yourself o Self-esteem – how you judge yourself Six Different Selves o Who I really am o Who I think I am o Who others think I am o Who I think others think I am o Who I think I will become o Who I think others want me to become Self-concept and Self-esteem o Self-concept  It has some stable features, but undergoes change  I have pink shoes, I have long hair, I have two brothers  Use social comparisons to define themselves Four basic dimensions of the self o Strang (1957) four basic dimensions  The overall, basic self-concept  Transitory self-concepts  Social selves  Ideal self – self that you want to be Importance of a Good Self-concept o It motivates ad directs one’s behavior o Possible selves:  Hoped-for selves  Expected selves  Feared selves Harter – Dimensions of self-esteem o 8 parts of our lives that feed into our self-esteem  Scholastic competence  Social acceptance  Athletic competence  Physical appearance – more important for girls  Job competence  Romantic appeal  Behavioral conduct  Friendships Good Self-Esteem affects:

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o Self-concepts and their self-ideals o Mental health o Interpersonal competence and popularity o Positive social relationships o Academic success Low Self-Esteem affects o Poor social adjustment o Not leaders o Do not participate o Do not stand up for their own rights or express their opinions o Experience a good deal of role strain – stress they experience when pulled in different directions (boss has certain priorities for you, parents have another, friends have another, etc.) o Delinquency – inconsistent studies until pulled out narcissism  Narcissism – self-love, vanity; social media (posting pics of themselves, number of followers)  Narcissism higher now than it was in the 80s Development of a Positive Self-Concept o Significant others o Parents: acceptance, flexibility, support o Socioeconomic status: an indirect effect  The limitations of being poor (the clothes, technology, etc. makes you feel less good about yourself) o Race/ethnicity: prejudice reduces self-esteem  African-Americans have the highest self-concept of any other minority group unless they are in an environment that they face a lot of prejudice  Asian-Americans have the lowest self-esteem of any other minority group o Gender: adolescence, girls’ global self-esteem is somewhat lower than boys o Disabilities: negative body and cognitive images o Stress  Adolescents who are more stressed tend to have a negative self-concept o School success Changes in Self-Concept o Self-esteem lowest in adolescence  Usually 6th-8th grade because change to middle school (school becomes more impersonal) o Gradually stabilizes o More realistic o Girlfriends of boyfriends o Appearance Can you have too much self-esteem? o Narcissism – an overly vain and self-absorbed person o Authentic self-esteem

How to increase self-esteem?  Identify causes  Provide support  Foster achievement  Coping skills o Helicopter parents – parents want to keep kids happy, but are keeping kids from experiencing minor failures  When kids get to high school or college, when they fail, they don’t know how to deal with the failure  Results include: higher depression/anxiety, not competent enough to deal with own problems Erickson’s Seven Issues of Identity o Temporal perspective vs. time confusion o Self-certainty vs. self-consciousness o Role experimentation vs. role fixation o Apprenticeship vs. work paralysis o Sexual polarization vs. bisexual confusion o Leadership and followership vs. authority confusion o Ideological commitment vs. confusion of values Marcia (1966) Identity Status Exploration Dimension Made Firm Not Made Firm Commitments Commitment Identity achievement Moratorium Have explored or are exploring alternatives Foreclosure Identity diffusion Have not explored alternatives o Identity Diffusion: no commitment, low exploration; early adolescence (haven’t thought about yourself because you’re so young) o Foreclosure: have made a commitment, but no exploration o Moratorium: in the exploration phase, but haven’t made a commitment; should be in stage for a while before making your life choice; most common one for adolescents o Identity achieved: found out who you are; made commitment based on exploration Critique of Marcia o Do not capture the entirety of the identity concept o Crisis/commitment aspect of identity o Sense of personal continuity o Integration of different parts of the self or the sense of unity o Do not always develop in an exact sequence Ethnic Identity o Four possible ways:  Separation: you exclusively focus on own cultural values and practices  Assimilation: identify with dominant culture; opposite of separation  Integration: identity in minority ethnic group, but also in dominant group  Most adaptive o

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 Marginality: don’t identify with either group; worst possible outcome Developing an Ethnic Identity o Ethnically unaware: young kids o Ethnically ambivalent: realize you’re different, but don’t think it’s an important part of your life o Ethnic emergence: adolescence; when anger or resentment occurs because you realize that you aren’t really apart of the dominant culture o Incorporate their ethnic identities Sex and Gender o Sex = a biological phenomenon o Gender = the cultural expectations that go along with one’s sex Cognitive-Developmental Theories o Gender schema theory – developmental sequence  Identify as boy/girl, but don’t really know what it entails  Discover that there are boy toys and girl toys; boy things to do and girl things to do; pay attention to things they are supposed to do  Prefer things that they are more comfortable with  Acts in masculine or feminine ways Societal Influences o Gender roles prescribed by society o Social learning theory – modeling and reinforcement (TV shows, books) o Parental identification – kids try to act like their parents; imitate characteristics Androgyny o Mixing of male and female traits ad roles o More benefits for females  More options o Gender-role transcendence: research recommends this; don’t think of traits as being masculine and feminine, but human Gender in Adolescence o Gender intensification hypothesis o Identity formation was small and mainly confined to two issues:  Family-career priorities  Sexual values Schools promote gender stereotypes o Uniforms o Self-fulfilling prophecies (women not great in math and science and allowed to slack) o Girls are rule followers and less assertive o Boys are leaders, confident, and want to share their opinion  Accept more behavior problems from boys

Chapter 7: The Development of Moral Values 

Piaget and Children’s Moral Development o Two types of studies:

Watched children while they played games with rules  Hopscotch, tag, hide-and-seek, etc.  Tell stories about moral situations and ask about intentions o Concluded that there is:  A morality of constraint  A morality of cooperation o Objective judgements – just look at consequence of action (how many people hurt, how many plates are broken, etc.); children o Subjective judgements – understand intent, take into account the person’s motives o Children moving from a stage of moral realism to one of moral relativism  Moral realism – immanent justice – you will be caught and punished if you break rules  Moral relativism – you have your own internal rules and morals; sense of reciprocity – people who work together and do the right thing makes it better for everybody Kohlberg’s Levels of Moral Development o Based on the argument for the reason you give o Level I: Pre-conventional moral reasoning  No shouldn’t steal it because could get caught and go to jail o Level II: Conventional moral reasoning o Level III: Post-conventional moral reasoning  No shouldn’t steal it because no one can trust each other Relation between Kohlberg’s Stages and Thinking Ability o A high level of cognitive development – high level of moral reasoning o Advanced reasoning skills o Epistemological development o Metacognition – thinking about thinking; morals Criticisms of Kohlberg o Stages are universal? o Conceptualized as stage-like?  Stage-like or should be more fluid? o Gender biased?  Designed by studying adolescent men  Is it applicable to women? Gilligan and Gender differences in moral reasoning o Carol Gilligan’s work  Men emphasize rights and justice  Women emphasize caring o Current view is that both men and women use both Factors that influence prosocial and moral behaviors o Prosocial – acts that benefit others o Pubertal status – children just entering pubertal are less prosocial than teens further along in adolescence 

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Perspective taking – kids who can take another’s perspectives are more likely to be prosocial o Moral reasoning – higher moral reasoning are more likely to act prosocially o Empathy o Personality – warm and outgoing are more likely to engage in prosocial behavior o High self-esteem – more likely to be prosocial o Family relationships – influence prosocial behavior o Peer relationships – influence prosocial behavior (negatively and positively) o Schooling – bigger schools = less likely for children to be prosocial; school climate = see it, then more likely to do it o Culture and ethnicity Family factors and moral reasoning o Parental warmth, acceptance, mutual esteem, and trust shown the child – authoritative parenting o Parent-teen interaction and communication – transactive dialogue (talking WITH child, not TO) o Discipline – authoritative parenting; important to stay consistent with discipline o Parent role model – children notice inconsistencies when parents say something and do another o Independence opportunities – children can practice independence, but want it to be done in a safe environment Extrafamilial influences on morality o Peers  Four ways that peers can influence  Peer pressure  Normative expectations – Adolescents follow the rules of their peer groups  Structuring opportunities  Modeling – choose peers based on common interests  Adolescents spend more time with friends than with parents o Religion  Parents who expose children to religion = higher chance of continuing religious aspects throughout life  60% of teens in the U.S. say religion is really important to them  Religion declines in early 20s; temporary  Positive effect on adolescent behavior  Mentors  More opportunities to be prosocial Television and other screen time o Violent content  Cognitive priming- after watching aggressive acts on TV, you are more likely to respond aggressively o Sexual content  Teen shows have more sexual content than adult shows do o

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Teens learn sexual values and morals from watching television Impulsive on TV = less likely to use contraception  Don’t show, use, or have conversations  Watch an average of 20,000 hours a year on TV, spend 14,000 hours in school  Suggestion on how media should change  Stop making all adolescents on TV attractive  Should show and highlight teens that are abstinent  Sex between adolescents need to be non-exploitive o Consent between both  Show planned sex rather than impulsive  Show contraception being used o Show negative consequences if not used  Show parents and children talking about sex o Materialism  Picked up from TV and other screens (exposed to 40,000 commercials a year)  Advertisements even at school  Fall victim to them o Unrealistic standards of physical beauty  Photoshopped Five Views of Moral Education o Inculcation o Moral development  Higher-level reasoning  Primary method used is to present case studies, or moral dilemmas o Values clarification goals  Beliefs and behaviors they would be willing to stand up for  Weight the pros and cons of alternatives  Choose freely  Learn to match actions with beliefs o Analysis  Students are taught to employ critical thinking and reasoning when making moral decisions  Lessons concentrate more on broad social values than on personal dilemmas o Service learning  

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Chapter 8: Relationships with Family Members 

Three Key components of parenting o Connection – warm, understanding, supportive  Parental interest and help  It’s about quality rather than quantity  Listening and empathetic understanding  Love and positive affect  Positive affect: warm and supportive relationships  Negative affect: coldness, rejection, anger

 Acceptance and approval Unconditional acceptance – no matter what mistakes are made, have the unconditional love of parents Psychological autonomy –get to make choices independently of parents; privacy  Autonomy  Separation-individuation: two aspects of autonomy o Behavioral autonomy – separation in terms of thoughts, actions (political viewpoints, religious viewpoints, choosing clothes, etc.) o Emotional autonomy – feelings and being able to stand on your own two feet  Connectedness and Autonomy  Enmeshed – too engaged; not autonomous enough (parents are best friends, no social group besides family, tell parents everything)  Disengaged – don’t tell anything to parents Regulation – parents monitor and supervise  These two dimensions are combined and derive from four parenting styles  Control  Warmth  Four parenting styles  Authoritative – high control, high warmth o Independent, socially skilled children o Induction – parenting technique where give a reason for behavior (need to study because get good grades, etc.)  Authoritarian – high control, low warmth o Dependent, passive, conforming children  Permissive – low control, high warmth (allow children to do anything) o Irresponsible, immature  Uninvolved – low control, low warmth o Impulsive, more likely to do drugs and have sex young 

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Trust o Annoying manifestations of o Project their own fears, anxiety, and guilt o Most fearful parents – most insecure o Based primarily on the amount and kind of knowledge Parent-Adolescent Tension o Differences in outlook Perceived control o How much control parents think they have o Loss of perceived control o 2 results  Use coercive discipline  Sense of helplessness – may lead to being an uninvolved parent Focus of Conflict

Social life and customs Responsibility  Curfew  Pay for own phone bill, gas, etc. o School  Fight about grades, study habits o Family relationships  Mothers and daughters fight the most  Parents fight with boys about behavior, fight with girls about peers and relationships o Social conventions  Acceptable to use vulgar language  Drinking/smoking Variables affecting conflict o Adolescent’s gender o Parent’s gender o Adolescent’s age o Atmosphere within the home o Socioeconomic status o Community environment o Parental workload Conflicts with Parents vs. Conflicts with Peers o More things to argue about – more divergent expectations o Friendships are voluntary alliances Why more conflict in adolescence? o Physical presence o Sexual issues o Cognitive capabilities  Metacognition/introspection  Think that the world should be ideal; can tell when parents are being hypocritical  Hypothetical thinking o Misunderstandings of what autonomy means (personal choice?) Results of Conflict o Adolescents characterize their family relationships as being positive o Family cohesion (when low conflict) o Antisocial behavior, immaturity, and low self-esteem (when high conflict in family) Relationships with other family members o Adolescent-sibling relationships o Vitally important o Older siblings – role models o Surrogate parents and caregivers o Companionship and friendship, affection and meaningful relationships. o o

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Types of Sibling Relationships o Caregiver relationship  One sibling is like a parent o Buddy relationship  Friends, enjoy spending time together, similar interests o Critical relationship  High levels of conflict and teasing o Rival  Siblings compete against each other (best grades, best at sports, etc.) o Casual  Siblings don’t have much to do with each other  Usually between large age gaps Quality of sibling relationship o Variables like gender, age, temperament  Temperament is the only thing that is consistent among the variables  Boy/Boy close in age are least likely to get along (rivalry) o Parental treatment  Differential treatment (perception)  The fact that parents’ behavior differs toward siblings in the same family  Different requirements from different siblings  Quality of sibling relationship usually suffers  Nonshared environment Relationships with Grandparents o Sense of continuity  Connection with past  Helpful when trying to find identity o Positive impact on parent-adolescent relations  Provide insight on how the parent was like as a child o Understand aging and accept the aged Five Grandparenting Styles – physical proximity and parent-grandparent relationship affect style o Influential  Highly involved grandparent  May be involved in discipline; can be a friend or mentor  May provide financial support in some way o Supportive  Similar to influential grandparent, but do not discipline o Passive  Sees teen less than one time a month  Positive relationship, but less frequent o Authority-oriented  Takes an authoritarian style, but not a lot of direct involvement o Detached  Uninvolved Maltreatment

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Child abuse  Children who are abused are more likely to abuse their children  Girls are more likely to choose a partner who is abusive Sexual abuse  Have same symptoms as people who have PTSD  Signs: drastic behavior changes (sleep, eating patterns), nightmares, money or gifts that are unexplained  Girls are more likely to report sexual abuse than boys  Estimate that about 30% of sexual abuse goes unreported  80-95% of sexual abusers are male  Don’t usually need to use force (guns, threats, or violence to get them to comply)  60% of sexual abuse is from somebody close to the child  30% is a family member o Incest is even more damaging to the child (break the trust)  10% is a stranger  Prey on emotional needy children; pick victims purposefully  How to prevent children from becoming victims of sexual abuse: monitor who they are with, teach children that sexuality is a good thing, be open with children Emotional abuse  Criticizing, obscenities, negative words consistently Child neglect  Parents are not paying attention to child and providing for them  Most common form of abuse

Chapter 9: Different Family Patterns  

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Authoritative and authoritarian parenting is different among cultures and they don’t necessarily lead to negative outcomes. With whom do American adolescents live? (charts) o Parents living apart o Parent has died o Divorced o Parents never married Attitudes toward divorce o Nearly half of all American marriages end in divorce o Short-term emotional reactions  Shock, disbelief, fear, insecurity about the future, guilt, self-blame, depression, sadness, etc.  For most, negative feelings disappear within 3 years of the divorce  Feel relief and happiness that conflict has ended Divorce: Long-term effects o Lower on measures of academic achievement, acceptable conduct, psychological adjustment, self-concept, and social relations o Influence extends into adulthood o Less likely to attend college and more likely to cohabitate without marriage, to have children at an early age, ...