Child and Adolescent Development PDF

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CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT I. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT A. DEFINITIONS 1 Growth - change in size, quantitative change 1 Development - change in capacity, qualitative change series of changes affected by maturation 1 Learning - change for the better; aspect of development that connotes modificatio...

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CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT I. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT A. DEFINITIONS 1.1 Growth - change in size, quantitative change 1.2 Development - change in capacity, qualitative change series of changes affected by maturation 1.3 Learning - change for the better; aspect of development that connotes modification of behavior which results from practice and experience B. PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT 1. Early foundations are critical 2. Maturation and learning play important roles in development 3. Development follows a definite and predictable pattern(cephalocaudal & proximo distal) 4. All individuals are different 5. Each phase of development has its hazards 6. Development is aided by stimulation 7. Development is affected by cultural changes 8. There are social expectations for every stage of development 9. Each phase of development has characteristic patterns of behavior

C. FACTORS 1. Heredity Maturation - Nature 2. Environment - Learning - Nurture D. STAGES IN THE LIFE SPAN The Life span is arbitrarily divided, for purposes of research and speculation, into segments with each segment being a part of a whole. It is divided into: 1. Prenatal Period – from conception to birth 2. Infancy – from birth to the end of the second week 3. Babyhood – after end of the second week to end of the second year 4. Early Childhood – after two to six years 5. Late Childhood – after six to ten or twelve years 6. Preadolescence or Puberty – from ten to or twelve or thirteen or fourteen years 7. Adolescence - after thirteen or fourteen years to eighteen years 8. Early Adulthood – after eighteen to thirty-five years 9. Middle Adulthood – after thirty-five to sixty-five years 10. Late Adulthood or Senescence (Old Age) – after sixty-five years to death E. DEVELOPMENTAL TASK Babyhood ad Early Childhood  Learning to take food  Learning to walk  Learning to talk  Learning to control the elimination of body wastes  Learning sex differences and sexual modesty  Getting ready to read  Learning to distinguish right and wrong and learning to develop a conscience Late Childhood  Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games  Building a wholesome attitude toward oneself as a growing organism  Learning to get along with age-mates  Beginning to develop appropriate masculine or feminine social roles  Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing, and calculating  Developing concepts necessary for everyday living

 Developing conscience, a sense of morality, and a scale of values  Developing attitudes toward social groups and institutions  Achieving personal independence Adolescence  Achieving new and more mature relations with age mates or both sexes  Achieving a masculine or feminine social role  Accepting one’s physique and using one’s body effectively  Desiring, accepting, and achieving socially responsible behavior  Achieving emotional independence from parents and other adults  Preparing for an economic career  Preparing for marriage and family life  Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to behavior- developing an ideology Early Adulthood  Getting started in an occupation  Selecting a mate  Learning to live with a marriage partner  Starting a family  Rearing children  Managing a home  Taking on civic responsibility  Finding a congenial social group Middle Age  Achieving adult, civic, and social responsibility  Assisting teenage children to become responsible and happy adults  Developing adult leisure time activities  Relating oneself to one’s spouse as a person  Accepting and adjusting to the physiological changes of middle age  Reaching and maintaining satisfactory performance in one’s occupational career  Adjusting to aging parents Old Age  Adjusting to decreasing physical strength and health  Adjusting to retirement and reduced income  Adjusting to death of spouse  Establishing an explicit affiliation with members of one’s age group  Establishing satisfactory physical living arrangements  Adapting to social roles in a flexible way II. THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT 1. Psychosexual Freud 2. Psychosocial Erikson 3. Moral Development – Kohlberg 4. Cognitive Development – Piaget 5. Emotional – Goleman 1. Self Awareness 2. Self Management 3. Social Awareness 4. Relationship Management 6. Multiple Intelligence Gardner 1. Word smart - Linguistic 2. Number smart - Mathematical Visual 3. Picture smart – Spatial 4. Self-smart Intrapersonal 5. Person smart – Interpersonal 6. Body smart Bodily /kinesthetic 7. Music smart - Musical/Rhythmic

8. Nature smart – Environmentalist 9. Spirit smart Existentialist / Philosopher 7. RECIPROCATING INFLUENCES Richard Q. Bell (1979) focused on the mutually interactive effects of the mother and child. Robert Cairns (1998) points out, the idea of bidirectionality does not assume that parents and children exercise equal influences over each other. Bell’s model has made us aware that socialization depends on the reciprocal influences of each person in the system on every other person. 8. FAMILY SYSTEM MODEL Patricia Minuchin’s (1985) family system model underscores the bidirectional influences and reciprocal relationships among all family members. Minuchin’s model underscores that children’s socialization depends on the reciprocal influences of each person in the system. 9. ECOLOGICAL CONTEXT BRONFENBRENNER - stress that development takes place in a variety of contexts that extend from the immediate physical environment of the child. a. THE MICROSYSTEM It includes family, peers, school, and neighborhood b. THE MESOSYSTEM It includes links between home, school, and neighborhood. c. THE EXOSYSTEM Consists of settings that do not include the child but that affect the child, such as city government, the workplace, school board, and mass media. d. THE MACROSYSTEM Involves the dominant attitudes and ideologies of the child’s culture e. THE CHRONOSYSTEM Patterns of stability and change in children’s environment over time. 10. VYGOTSKY’S SOCIO CULTURAL CONTEXTS Lev Vygotsky (1898 – 1934) – made culture an important feature in his theory. His theory emphasized the collective wisdom of each culture that is then passed on to its children. Culture reflects the values, ideals, and beliefs of a particular group of people that are passed on from one generation to the next. Zone of proximal development. Vygotsky’s phrase to describe the range of skills a child has not yet mastered, but could accomplish with the assistance provided by adults and more knowledgeable peers. Scaffolding More knowledgeable other I11. THEORIES OF LEARNING A. Behavioral Approach 1. Classical Conditioning - Pavlov 2. Operant Conditioning - Skinner 3. Behaviorist Conditioning – Watson 4. Connectionism Conditioning - Thorndike 5. Purposive Behaviorism - Tolman 6. Observational Learning - Bandura B. Humanistic Approach Hierarchy of Needs - Maslow C. Cognitive Approach 1. Gestalt Insight theory

- Max Wertheiner – founder - Wolfgang Kohler - Kurth Koffka 2. Information processing – information is received through the senses and goes to the sensory memory for a very brief amount of time. If not found relevant, information may decay. It goes to the

(STM) Short Term Memory and if given attention and is perceived and found to be relevant, it is sent to the (LTM) Long Term Memory. If not properly encoded, forgetting occurs. Different cognitive processes applied to the information will then determine if information can be retrieved when needed later. 3. Constructivist Theory - Jerome Bruner SPIRAL curriculum The ability to represent knowledge develops in (3) three stages 1. Enactive representation –represent objects in terms the immediate sensation 2. Iconic representation – learning can be obtain through the use of pictures, models and mental images 3. Symbolic representation- the ability to think in abstract terms 4. Meaningful Verbal Learning- David P. Ausubel Knowledge is hierarchically organized , that new information is meaningful to the extent that it can be related to what is already known Four (4) Processes in SUBSUMPTION 1. Derivative Subsumption- new information as an example of what you have learned 2. Correlative Subsumption- you change or expand the concept 3. Superordinate Learning- from specific concept to general terms 4. Combinatorial Learning- learning by analogy Types of Advance Organizers 1. Expository 2. Narrative 3. Skimming 4. Graphic Organizers 5. Conditions of Learning – Gagne Gagne’s Principles 1. Different instruction is required for different learning outcomes 2. Learning hierarchies define what intellectual skills are to be learned 3. Events of learning operate on the learner in ways that constitute its conditions NINE INSTRUCTIONAL EVENTS 1. Gaining Attention (Reception) 6. Eliciting Performance (Responding) 2. Informing the Learners of the Objectives(Expectancy) 7. Providing Feedback(Reinforcement) 3. Stimulating Recall of Prior Learning(Retrieval) 8. Assessing Performance (Evaluation) 4. Presenting the Stimulus (Selective Perception) 9. Enhancing Retention and Transfer 5. Providing Learning Guidance (Semantic Encoding) (Generalization) 1V. LANDMARKS OF DEVELOPMENT 1. Physical / Motor Development Nervous System, Muscular, Endocrine Glands, Physique 2. Cognitive Development Speech, Understanding 3. Social Development Social Individual, Gregarious Inference of Social Group Gang 4. Moral Development Morality, Discipline, Recreational Activitie Learning / Thinking Styles I. Sensory Preferences 1. Visual Learners- (Visual Iconic and Visual Symbolic) 2. Auditory Learners (Listeners and Talkers) 3. Tactile / Kinesthetic - hands on approach II. Global-Analytic Continuum 1. Global – Forest Seers 2. Analytic – Tree Seers LEFT BRAIN (Analytic) Successive Hemispheric Style 1. Verbal 2. Responds to Word Meaning

RIGHT BRAIN (Global) Simultaneous Hemispheric Style 1. Visual 2. Responds to Tone of Voice

3. Sequential 4. Processes Information Linearly 5. Responds to Logic 6. Plans Ahead 7. Recalls Peoples Names 8. Speaks with Few Gestures 9. Punctual 10. Prefers Formal Study Design 11. Prefers bright lights while studying V. EXCEPTIONAL DEVELOPMENT 1. Physical Disabilities 2. Mental Retardation 3. Behavioral Disabilities

3. Random 4. Processes Information in Varied Order 5. Responds to Emotion 6. Impulsive 7. Recalls Peoples Faces 8. Gestures when Speaking 9. Less Punctual 10. Prefers sounds, music background while studying 11. Prefers frequent mobility while studying

4. Sensory Impairments 5. Learning Disabilities

Impairment – deceased or defective tissue (hearing and visual) Disability - reduction of function or absence of a particular body part or organ Handicap - refers to the problems that an impaired or disabled person might have met in interacting with the environment A. Classification of Physical Disability 1. Orthopedic Impairment- bone and muscular defect 1.1 Poliomyelitis – infantile paralysis caused by virus 1.2. Osteomyelitis – tuberculosis of the bone and spine 1.3. Bone Fracture – breaks in the continuity of bones 1.4. Muscular Dystrophy – deterioration of the muscles 2. Neuro-Muscular Impairments – defects of the nerve and muscle system 2.1. Cerebral Palsy – non progressive alteration of movement or motor functioning 2.2. Erb’s Palsy – “birth palsy” paralysis of the muscles of the shoulders, arms and hands 2.3.Congenitally Crippled – crippling conditions at birth 2.3.1 Clubfoot – deformed feet accompanied by webbed toes 2.3.2.Clubhand – deformed hand and fingers 2.3.3. Polydactylism – with extra toes or fingers 2.3.4. Syndactylism – webbed fingers or toes

B. MENTAL RETARDATION 1. MILD - educability in academic subjects at a minimum level - educability in social adjustment and can get along independently - minimal occupational adequacies and can latter support himself 2.M0DERATE – not educable in academic achievement but with self help skills, social adjustment in the family economic usefulness in the home 3. SEVERE – can be trained in health habits and may contribute partially to self maintenance under complete supervision 4. PROFOUND – unable to be trained in total self care and need continued help in taking care of their personal needs C. BEHAVIORAL DISABILITIES

1. Emotional Disturbance – psychosocial problems or impairment (SED) Seriously Emotionally Disturbed 2. Schizophrenia – psychotic disorder characterized by distorted thinking 3. Autism – psychotic condition characterized by bizarre behavior. Extreme social isolation and delayed development 4. ADHD – (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder) 5. Paranoid – extreme fear 6. Narcistic – extreme love of self 7. Anti Social – has no friends 8. Dependent – can not make simple decisions for oneself 9. Acting Child – full of pretense 10. Withdrawn – extreme shyness D. LEARNING DISABILITIES Considered as hidden disability characterized by poor academic performance, delayed physical development accompanied by academic, social and psychological problems. a. DYSARTHRIA - STUTTERING b. DYSGRAPHIA - WRITING c. MOTOR APHASIA - SPEAKING d. VISUAL AGNOSIA - SIGHT e. AUDITORY AGNOSIA - HEARING f. OLFACTORY AGNOSIA - SMELLING g. DISCALCULIA - MATH h. DYSLEXIA - READING E. SENSORY IMPAIRMENT 1. Visual Handicaps (Visual impairment and Blindness) VISUAL ACUITY PROBLEMS - POOR SIGHT - AMBLYOPIA (LAZY EYE) - HYPEROPIA (FARSIGHTEDNESS) - MYOPIA (NEARSIGHTEDNESS) - ASTIGMATISM - CATARACT - GLAUCOMA 2, Hearing Impaired (Slight, Mild, Moderate, Severe, Profound) Can be classified as Prelingual and Postlingual Classified as Prelingual and Postlingual SUMMARY OF FREUD’S AND ERIKSON’S THEORIES OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT Infant

Toddler

Freud’s Stages of Childhood Psychosexual Stage Implications Oral Stage Child explores Provide oral stimulation by the world by using the giving pacifiers, do not mouth, especially the discourage thumb sucking. tongue. Lack of oral Breast-feeding may provide experiences now may lead more stimulation’s than to alcoholism or obesity formula feeding. As it (oral dependence) later in requires the infant to life expand more energy Anal Stage Child learns to Help children achieve control urination and bowel and bladder control defecation. Constipation or without undue emphasis on obsessive-compulsive its importance. If at all personality may become possible, continue bowel chronic problems in later and bladder training while life from effects of this child is hospitalized. period.

Erickson’s Stages of Childhood Developmental Tasks Implications Developmental task is to Name a primary care giver. form a sense of trust vs. Provide experiences that mistrust. Child learns to add to security, such as soft love and be loved. sounds and touch. Provide visual stimulation for active child involvement.

Developmental task is to form a sense of autonomy vs. shame. Child learns to be independent and make decisions for self.

Provide opportunities for decision-making such as offering choices of clothes to wear or toys to play with. Praise for ability to make decisions rather than judging correctness of any one decision.

Pre-schooler

School-ager

Adolescent

Phallic Stage Child learns sexual identity through awareness of genital area. Difficulty with sexual identity and authority figures may become problems later if period is interrupted. Latent Stage Child’s personality development appears to be non-active or dormant.

Genital Stage Adolescent develops sexual maturity and learns how to established satisfactory relationship with the opposite sex. Negative experiences may lead to unsatisfactory sexual adjustment later, and problems such as frigidity or impotence.

Accept child’s sexual interest, such as fondling his or her own genitals, as a normal area of exploration. Help parents answer questions about birth or sexual differences.

Developmental task is it form a sense of initiative vs. guilt. Child learns how to do things (basic problem solving) and that doing things is desirable.

Provide opportunities exploring new places activities. Allow play include activities such water, modeling, clay, finger paint.

Help the child have positive experiences so his self-esteem continues to grow and he prepares for the conflicts of adolescence.

Developmental task is to form a sense of industry vs. inferiority. Child learns how to do things well.

Provide opportunities such as allowing child to assemble supplies for a dressing change (short projects finished completely), o that child feels rewarded for accomplishment. Provide opportunities for the adolescent to discuss feelings about event important to him. Other support for decisionmaking.

Provide opportunities for the child to relate with opposite sex, allow child to verbalize feelings about new relationships

Developmental task is to form a sense of identify vs. role confusion. Adolescent learns who he is and what kind of person he will be by adjusting to a new body image, seeking emancipation from parents, choosing a vocation, and determining a value system. 6. Intimacy vs Isolation 7. Generativity vs Stagnation 8. Integrity vs Despair

KOHLBERG’S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Age (years) Preconventional level 1

Stage

Description

Implication

0

Child does right to gain parent’s approval

2-3

1

4-7

2

Punishment-obedience orientation. Child does right either because a parent asks her to or to avoid punishment Instrumental hedonism and concrete reciprocity. Child carries out actions to satisfy own needs rather than society’s Will do something for you if you do something for her.

Praise child for right actions. Consistency helps build sense of security. Child needs help to determine right actions. Give clear instructions to avoid confusing her. Child unable to recognize that like situations requires like actions. Unable to take responsibility for self-care, since fulfilling own desires more important.

Conventional Level 7 - 10

3

10 - 12

4

Post conventional Level Over 12

Orientation to interpersonal relations of mutuality. Child follows rules as to what is “nice” Maintenance of social order, fixed rules, and authority. Child finds following rules satisfying follows those of authority figures as well as parents.

Child enjoys helping others, as this is “nice behavior. Allow child to help you with bed making, etc. Give praise for sharing. Etc. Child often ask what are the rules and if something is “right”. Has Difficulty modifying procedures because one method may not be “right”. Follows self-care measures only if you are there to enforce them.

5

Social contact utilitarian lawmaking perspective. Follows standards of society

Can be responsible for self-care, views this as a standard of adult behavior.

6

Universal ethical principle orientation. Individual follows internalized standards of conduct

Many adults do not reach this level of moral development.

PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Stage Development

of

Age Span

Implications

for or to as or

Sensorimotor Neonatal reflex Primary circular reaction

1 month

Stimuli assimilated into beginning mental images: behavior entirely reflective.

1-4 month

Secondary circular reaction

4-8 months

Hand-mouth and ear-eye coordination develop. Infant spends much time looking at objects and separating self from them. Beginning intention of behavior present (infant brings thumb to mouth for a purpose to suck it). Enjoyable activity for this period: rattle or tape of parent’s voice. Infant learns to initiate, recognize, and repeat pleasurable experiences from environment. Memory traces are present, infant anticipates familiar events (a parent coming near him and will pick him up). Good toy...