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Classical Conditioning Behavioral Learning Theory “According to behaviorists, learning can be defined as the relatively permanent change in behavior that is result of experience.” There are three types’ of behavioral learning theories. 

Contiguity Theory

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Classical Theory

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Operant Theory Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning was the first type of learning to be discovered and studied

with in the behaviorist. The term ‘classical’ means “in the established manner” and “classical conditioning” refers to conditioning in manner established by the Russian physiologist, Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849-1936). Conditioning is a kind of responses build up through repeated exposure. Classical conditioning is based on the association of pairing of an originally neutral stimulus with a response producing stimulus. This pairing of stimuli at last produces a condition or learned responses. In classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus paired one or more times with a biologically significant stimulus, acquires the power to reveal a behavioral response in the absence of biologically Significant stimulus. Classical conditioning could take place only when the two events to be associated occurred close together. Classical conditioning was influence on the school of thought in psychology known as behaviorism discovered by Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov.

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Ivan Petrovitch Pavlov (1849-1936) Introduction Ivan Pavlov was born on 27 September in the town of Ryazan, about 250 miles from Moscow. He was a Russian scientist trained in biology and medicine, the first investigator to study this process extensively in the laboratory. Scientific research to classical conditioning is commonly associated with Ivan Pavlov, the Russian psychologist who was awarded a Nobel Prize in1904 for his research on digestive functioning. He was major theorist in the development of classical conditioning. The classical conditioning was first discovered by Ivan P, Pavlov, while he was studying the digestive processes in animals. It is also known as simple conditioning; simple because the organism enters situation only in a high mechanical or automatic way. Pavlov’s Dog Experiment He did experiment on dogs to salivation rates of dogs; he found that they would produce saliva when they smelt food. He said that saliva play an important role in the digestion of food. Pavlov’s dog were placed in an isolated environment and restrained in special tools, with food bowl in front of him and a device was used to measure the rate of saliva. He found that the dog begin salivate when meat was presented. Here he called meat unconditional stimulus (UCS) and salivation a unconditioned response (UCR). UCS

UCR

Meat

Salivation

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Pavlov continued his experiment and observes that a day came when the foot step of the person bringing meat caused salivation even when meat was not given ti dog. Here he called sound of footsteps conditional stimulus and salivation a conditioned response. CS

CR

Foot step

Salivation

So we concluded that dog associated the sound of foot step with original stimulus (meat) and produce salivation and called it classical conditioning. Experiment # 2: In order to further demonstrate and analyze the phenomenon of classical conditioning Pavlov conducts a series of experiments. Pavlov gave meat to the dog and it produced salivation UCS

UCR

Meat

Salivation

Then he starts ringing bell with the presentation of meat with gap of few seconds and repeated this for many times, and dog salivates. CS + UCS Bell

UCR

Meat

Salivation

Gradually dog had learned to associate the two stimuli and produce saliva after the ringing of bell even when the meat was not presented. This was what Pavlov called conditioned response to conditioned stimulus, classical conditioning. CS

CR

Bell

Salivation

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Contribution of Ivan Pavlov in classical conditioning Discovery of conditioned reflex During his work on digestion, Pavlov discovered conditioned reflex. He realized that conditioned reflexes could be explained by the associative principles of contiguity and frequency and originally called them psychic reflexes. Unconditioned stimulus The unconditioned stimulus is one that unconditionally, naturally and automatically give response. Unconditional response It is the unlearned response that occurs naturally in response to the unconditioned stimulus. Conditioned stimulus Neutral stimulus associated with original stimulus which produces original response. Conditioned response It is the learned response caused by conditioned stimulus. Types of Classical Conditioning Pavlov defined the two types of classical conditioning. Forward conditioning: The neutral stimulus is presented before the unconditioned stimulus (bell then food). Backward conditioning: The neutral stimulus is presented after the unconditioned stimulus (food then music).

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John Watson While the roots of behaviorism are to be found in Pavlov’s work John Watson (18781958) is known as the founder of behaviorism. Watson who was highly influenced by Pavlov, brought a degree of scientific rigor to the field by moving away from the study of consciousness. According to Watson mental events (anything happening in the conscious or unconscious mind), could not be dealt with directly and thus should be avoided in the study of psychology. Instead psychology should only study behavior and the conditions or experiences that affect or cause behavior. His famous experiment was little Albert. Experiment on Poor Little Albert Watson conducted the classic experiment involving an 11- month old child named Albert, a white rat and steel bar and hammer. Before the experiment, Albert was presented with a white rat. He shows no fear, reaching out to touch it when he saw it. During the initial part of the experiment when Albert again saw the rat he reached for it. As soon as he touched the rat a researcher behind Albert hit the steel bar with a hammer. This made a very loud noise causing Albert to jump violently, fall forward and cry. Again, when he saw the rat and reached for it the same thing occurred. There were several more pairings like this between the rat and the sound. Eventually Albert developed a strong fear of the rat. When the rat was presented to Albert he would fall over, begin to cry, and try to crawl away. The experiment continued. Albert was taught in the same manner, to fear a variety of other objects that were not feared at the beginning of the experiment such a dog or other dangerous animals. In this experiment Watson showed that emotional reaction could be altered through classical conditioning. Here the loud beginning noise was the UCS. Albert’s

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physical reaction to the noise was the UCR. When the UCS was paired with the rat the rat, became the CS. Watson explanation was slightly different from the Pavlov’s. While the Pavlov would say that the UCS (banging sound) reinforce the CS (rat).Watson would say that these two followed each other in closely in time so that the one became associated with the other. Learning, according to Watson occurs because of the close succession of events (things happen together). The more often they occur together, the stronger the bond or association between events. This is known as the law of contiguity. Basics principles of classical conditioning  Acquisition 

Period during which a response is being learned.

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CS is paired with UCS to establish a strong CR

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Fastest: forward trace pairing (CS appears before UCS)

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Slower: simultaneous pairing (CS appears with UCS)

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Slowest: backward pairing (CS appears after UCS)

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Generally strongest when repeated pairings, intense UCS, and sequence involve forward pairing with a short break between CS and UCS.

Acquisition is the first step to the method. It is the process dy which an organism learns the association involved in classical conditioning. For the process to begin, two different stimuli, CS (Conditioned stimuli) and UCS (Unconditioned stimuli) must be paired repeatedly before the CS unfailingly elicits a CR (conditioned response). CS and UCS when paired together extract a certain response. After repeatedly pairing two separate stimuli together, the conditioned

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response gets stronger and stronger. This process is called Acquisition. Acquisition of relationship between two stimuli is absolutely vital for classical conditioning.  Extinction 

Extinction – if CS is presented repeatedly without UCS, CR will weaken and disappear.

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Extinction occurs more rapidly.

The process of undoing the classical conditioning such that the subject does not produce CR in the presence of CS is termed as Extinction. Extinction is said to have occurred when there is complete absence of conditioned response. When the subject is exposed to conditioned stimulus (absence of UCS). Extinction can be produced by ending the association between conditioned and unconditioned stimuli.  Spontaneous Recovery 

Spontaneous discovery – reappearance of a previously extinguished CR after a rest period, without new learning trials. CR from spontaneous recovery is usually weaker.

Sometimes, the CR suddenly reappears even after then link between CS and UCS has been broken down, or to put in another words, the organisms has stop eliciting CR in response to CS. This can be termed as spontaneous recovery.

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 Stimulus Generalization 

Stimulus generalization – once CR is acquired, organism will respond to other stimuli that are similar to original CS. Greater chance for CR in more similar CS.

After an organism has been conditioned to respond in a certain way for a particular stimulus after repeated trials, it shouldn’t be surprising or uncommon to expect the organism to respond in the similar way to other similar stimuli or situations. In classical conditioning generalization is defined as the process in which a stimulus similar to the original CS produces similar behavior identical to the CR.  Stimulus Discrimination 

Discrimination – when a CR occurs to one stimulus, but not to others.

The process in which an organism learns to difference between different stimuli in order to restrict their response to one stimuli in order to restrict their response to one stimulus in particular is known as stimulus discrimination.  Higher – Order / Secondary Conditioning 

Higher – order conditioning – a neutral stimulus becomes a CS after paired with another CS (rather than the original UCS). Typically, the new CS is weaker and extinguishes sooner.

Secondary conditioning is basically learning through association in the absence of an unconditioned response, where previously neutral stimuli may also acquire the ability to form further associations with other neutral stimuli.

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Factors in Classical Conditioning There are four major factors that facilitate the acquisition of classically conditioned responses. i.

The number of pairings: Repeated pairings US + CS, US + CS, learning doesn’t happen on single pairing. Generally more parings, the stronger the conditioned response.

ii.

The intensity of the unconditioned stimulus: If a conditioned stimulus is paired with a very strong unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned response will be stronger and acquired more rapidly compared to pairing with a weaker unconditioned stimulus.

iii.

How reliability the conditioned stimulus predict the un conditioned stimulus: The neutral stimulus must reliably predict the occurrence of the Unconditioned stimulus.

iv.

Spacing of pairing: This is the temporal relationship between the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus. If pairing CS + US follows two rapidly Slower learning--- if pairing CS + US too apart

slower learning ---

CS and US should not occur alone--- pairing reduces rate and strength.

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Theories of classical conditioning Different psychologists are of different views regarding classical conditioning. The Stimulus response (S-R) theories have explained it in that context whereby the Stimulus-Stimulus (S-S) theories have explained it according to their own views. Stimulus- Response learning (S-R learning) stand for any kind of learning assumed to be fundamentally governed by the forming of some link or bond between a particular stimulus and a specific response. Learning based on the association between two stimuli is called Stimulus-Stimulus (S-S) learning. Some of the theories are discussed below; The S-S theories believe that in classical conditioning, an association of the afferent state of affairs is produced by the conditioned stimulus with afferent activity produced by the unconditioned stimulus (UCS). According to this theory one stimulus that is the conditioned stimulus (CS) gains the property initiating, eliciting, or evoking sensory consequences or the central nervous system activities that are characteristics of the second stimulus that is the unconditioned stimulus (US). Supporters of this view point include Spence (1951), Woodworth and Schlosberg (1954), Bitterman (1965) and Konorski (1967). Edwin Ray Guthrie (1935, 1952 & 1959) on the other hand lays emphasis on the S-R relationship and points out that it is the characteristic of an organism that whenever are response occurs, it is immediately and completely associated with all stimuli present at that instant. Thus, according to this view point, conditioning should be

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analyzed on the basis of the description of the response and the specification of all afferent activity occurring at the same time. The response at first may be UR but after trails its form and temporal characteristics change. The response-produced stimuli generated by organism’s reactions are an important part of the total afferent state in such conditioning. Classical Conditioning Theory The classical conditioning theory is based on the assumption that learning is develop through the interaction with the environment. Also, the environment shapes the behavior and internal mental state such as thoughts, feelings, and emotions don not explain the human behavior. Here, an organism learns to transfer response from one stimulus to the previously neutral stimulus. Classical conditioning is comprised of four elements: 1. Unconditioned Stimulus (US): This invariably causes to react in a way. 2. Unconditioned Response (UR): Takes place when the US is presented. 3. Conditioned Stimulus (CS): The object that does not bring about the desired response. 4. Conditioned Response (CR): A particular behavior that an organism learns to produce when the CS is presented. Application of Classical Conditioning 

Classical conditioning is effective in a number of therapeutic treatments in humans, such as aversion therapy, systematic desensitization, and flooding.

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Classical conditioning is used not only in therapeutic interventions, but in everyday life such as by advertising agencies.

Behavioral Therapies Classical conditioning has been used as a successful form of treatment in changing behaviors, such as substance abuse and smoking. Some therapies associated with classical conditioning include aversion therapy, systematic desensitization, and flooding. Aversion therapy: Aversion therapy is a type of behavior therapy designed to encourage individuals to give up undesirable habit by causing them to associate the habit with an unpleasant effect. For example, a violent person might be shown images of violent crime, or an alcoholic might be made to drink, while drugs or electric shocks are administered. In theory, the patient will, over time, come to associate their addiction with the negativity of electric shocks or seizures.  Uses of aversion therapy 

Habit

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Smoking

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Alcoholism

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Gambling

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Violence

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Systematic desensitization Systematic desensitization is a treatment of phobias in which the individual is trained to relax while being exposed to progressively more anxiety – provoking stimuli. There are three phases of the treatment: First, the patient is taught a deep muscles relaxation technique and breathing exercise. This step is very important because of reciprocal inhibited, where once response is inhibited because it is incompatible with another. In the case of phobias, fear involves tension and tension is incompatible with relaxation. Second, the patient creates a fear hierarchy starting at stimuli that create the anxiety and building up in stages to the most fear provoking images. Third, the patient work their way up the fear hierarchy starting at the least unpleasant stimuli and practicing their relaxation technique as they go. When they feel comfortable with this they move on to the next stage in the hierarchy. If the client becomes upset they can return to an earlier stage and regain their relaxed state. Flooding Flooding is a form of desensitization that uses repeated exposure to highly distressing stimuli until the lake of reinforcement to the anxiety response causes its extinction. Classical Conditioning in Everyday Life Classical conditioning is used not only in therapeutic interventions, but in everyday life as well. Advertising executives, for example, are adept at applying the principles of associative learning. Think about the car commercials you have seen on

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television: many of them feature an attractive model. By association the model with car being advertised, you come to see the car as being desirable.

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References Andrew, J. (2014). Behaviorism Retrieved from http://www. academic, edu/ 8468278 / Behaviorism-classical conditioning. Be Book smarter. (2017).spark notes .Retrieved from http:// m. spark notes. Com/psychology/psycho101/ learning/section1.R html. Business jargon. (2017).classical conditioning. Retrieved from http:// business jargons. com/classical/conditioning/theory.Html. Boundless psychology. (2011).basic principles of classical conditioning. Retrieved from https://courses.luwen.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/classical conditioning. Jonathan. L. (2014).cognitive psychology New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley. K.Mthew.L. Kemon, A.L. (2012). Facets of pavolovian and operant extinction. Retrivedfromhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc. Psyche study. (2012).Principles of classical conditioning. Retrieved from http://www. psyche study.com/behavioral/learning-memory/classical-conditioning /principle. Rakhshanda, S. (2010). An Approach to psychology. Faisalabad. Pakistan: Ch.Ahmad Najib....