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1 CHAPTER 1 Psychological Testing and Assessment roots of contemporary psychological testing and assessment can be found in early France In 1905, Alfred Binet and a colleague published a test designed to help place Paris schoolchildren in appropriate classes. was the term used to refer to everything...

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CHAPTER 1 Psychological Testing and Assessment >The roots of contemporary psychological testing and assessment can be found in early twentieth-century France In 1905, Alfred Binet and a colleague published a test designed to help place Paris schoolchildren in appropriate classes. >Testing was the term used to refer to everything from the administration of a test (as in “Testing in progress”) to the interpretation of a test score. -World War I, testing gained a powerful foothold in the vocabulary of professionals and laypeople. -World War II a semantic distinction between testing and a more inclusive term, assessment, began to emerge -psychological assessment as the gathering and integration of psychology - related data for the purpose of making a psychological evaluation that is accomplished through the use of tools such as tests, interviews, case studies, behavioral observation, and specially designed apparatuses and measurement procedures. -psychological testing as the process of measuring psychology-related variables by means of devices or procedures designed to obtain a sample of behavior. APPROACH TO ASSESSMENT 1. collaborative psychological assessment, the assessor and assessee may work as “partners” from initial contact through fi nal feedback ..E lement of therapy as part of the process. described a collaborative approach to assessment called therapeutic psychological assessment. Here, therapeutic self-discovery and new understandings are encouraged throughout the assessment process 2. dynamic assessment refers to an interactive approach to psychological assessment that usually follows a model of (1) evaluation, (2) intervention of some sort, and (3) evaluation. most typically employed in educational settings. Intervention between evaluations, sometimes even between individual questions posed or tasks given, might take many different forms, depending upon the purpose of the dynamic assessment (Haywood & Lidz, 2007). For example, an assessor may intervene in the course of an evaluation of an assessee’s abilities with increasingly more explicit feedback or hints.

The Tools of Psychological Assessment >test may be defined simply as a measuring device or procedure. it refers to a device or procedure designed to measure a variable related to that modifier. >psychological test refers to a device or procedure designed to measure variables related to psychology. a psychological test almost always involves analysis of a sample of behavior. >behavior sample could be elicited by the stimulus of the test itself, or it could be naturally occurring behavior (under observation). A. content (subject matter) even two psychological tests purporting to measure the same thing (example, personality —may differ widely in item content. B. format pertains to the form, plan, structure, arrangement, and layout of test items as well as to related considerations such as time limits. Format is also used to refer to the form in which a test is administered: computerized, pencil-and-paper, or some other form.

2 C. administration procedures (one-to-one basis, may require an active and knowledgeable test administrator.) D. scoring and interpretation procedures. >>score as a code or summary statement, usually but not necessarily numerical in nature, that reflects an evaluation of performance on a test, task, interview, or some other sample of behavior. >>Scoring is the process of assigning such evaluative codes or statements to performance on tests, tasks, interviews, or other behavior samples. .. cut score is a reference point, usually numerical, derived by judgment and used to divide a set of data into two or more classifications (E.G Cut scores are used by employers as aids to decision making about personnel hiring and advancement) Sometimes, no formal method is used to arrive at a cut score. Some teachers use an informal “eyeball” method E. technical quality More commonly, reference is made to what is called the psychometric soundness of a test Synonymous with PSYCHOMETRICS. >>psychometrics may be defined as the science of psychological measurement >>psychometric soundness of a test when referring to how consistently and how accurately a psychological test measures what it purports to measure. >>utility refers to the usefulness or practical value that a test or assessment technique has for a particular purpose

TOOL OF MEASUREMENT 1. interview conjures images of face-to-face talk, t aking note of not only the content of what is said but also the way it is being said (taking note of both verbal and nonverbal behavior) interview as a method of gathering information through direct communication involving reciprocal exchange. >>interview may be used to help human resources professionals make more informed recommendations about the hiring, fi ring, and advancement of personnel. >>panel interview more than one interviewer participates in the personnel assessment. advantage of this approach, which has also been referred to as a board interview, is that any idiosyncratic biases of a lone interviewer will be minimized by the use of two or more interviewers Disadvantage of the panel interview relates to its utility; the cost of using multiple interviewers may not be justifi ed, especially when the return on this investment is q uestionable. 2. Portfolio samples of one’s ability and accomplishment keep files of their work products (paper, canvas, fi lm, video, audio, or some other medium) 3. Case history data refers to records, transcripts, and other accounts in written, pictorial, or other form that preserve archival information, official and informal accounts, and other data and items relevant to an assessee >>Work samples, artwork, doodlings, and accounts and pictures pertaining to interests and hobbies are yet other examples. >>provides information about neuropsychological functioning prior to the occurrence of a trauma or other event that results in a deficit >>case history data for insight into a student’s current academic or behavioral standing. Case history data is also useful in making judgments concerning future class placements. >>might shed light on how one individual’s personality and a particular set of environmental

3 conditions combined to produce a successful world leader 4. Behavioral Observation monitoring the actions of others or oneself by visual or electronic means while recording quantitative and/or qualitative information regarding the actions. >>may be used as a tool to help identify people who demonstrate the abilities required to perform a particular task or job >>naturalistic observation venture outside of the confi nes of clinics, classrooms, workplaces, and research laboratories in order to observe behavior of humans in a natural setting 5. Role play may be defi ned as acting an improvised or partially improvised part in a simulated situation. role-play test is a tool of assessment wherein assessees are directed to act as if they were in a particular situation. (example, grocery shopping Skills) >>Individuals being evaluated in a corporate, industrial, organizational, or military context for managerial or leadership ability are routinely placed in role-play situations Computers as Tools >>Scoring may be done on-site ( local processing ) >>( central processing ) If processing occurs at a central location, test-related data may be sent to and returned from this central facility by means of phone lines ( teleprocessing ), by mail, or courier >>simple scoring report simply recording and tally >>extended scoring report, which includes statistical analyses of the testtaker’s performance >>interpretive report, which is distinguished by its inclusion of numerical or narrative interpretive statements in the report >>At the high end of interpretive reports is what is sometimes referred to as a consultative report. This type of report, usually written in language appropriate for communication between assessment professionals, may provide expert opinion concerning analysis of the data >>integrative report will employ previously collected data (such as medication records or behavioral observation data) into the test report. designed to integrate data from sources other than the test itself into the interpretive report. >>CAPA computer assisted psychological assessment, assistance com puters provide to the test user, not the testtaker. >>CAT computer adaptive testing, computer’s ability to tailor the test to the testtaker’s ability or t esttaking pattern (example, on a computerized test of academic abilities, the computer might be programmed to switch from testing math skills to English skills after three consecutive failures on math items.) -testtaker, anyone who is the subject of an assessment or an evaluation can be a testtaker or an assessee -psychological autopsy may be defined as a reconstruction of a deceased individual’s psychological profi le on the basis of archival records, artifacts, and interviews previously conducted with the deceased assessee or with people who knew him or her -rapport may be defined as a working relationship between the examiner and theexaminee -alternate assessment is typically accomplished by means of some accommodation made to the assessee. In the context of psychological testing and assessment, accommodation may be defined as the adaptation of a test,

4 procedure, or situation, or the substitution of one test for another, to make the assessment more suitable for an assessee with exceptional needs. -Alternate assessment is an evaluative or diagnostic procedure or process that varies from the usual, customary, or standardized way a measurement is derived either by virtue of some special accommodation made to the assessee or by means of alternative methods designed to measure the same variable(s).

Chapter 2

culture-specific tests to “isolate” the cultural variable tests designed for use with people from one culture but not from another. SOME ISSUES REGARDING CULTURE AND ASSESSMENT Verbal Communication >Language, the means by which information is communicated, is a key yet sometimes overlooked variable in the assessment process Nonverbal communication and behavior >>Facial expressions, fi nger and hand signs, and shifts in one’s position in space may all convey messages Standards of evaluation >>remember story of a contest J TESTS AND GROUP MEMBERSHIP What happens when groups systematically differ in terms of scores on a particular test? The answer, in a word, is conflict. >In vocational assessment, test users are sensitive to legal and ethical mandates concerning the use of tests with regard to hiring, fi ring, and related decision making. >affirmative action refers to voluntary and mandatory efforts undertaken by federal, state, and local governments, private employers, and schools to combat discrimination and to promote equal opportunity in education and employment for all. (Affirmative action seeks to create equal opportunity actively, not passively) In assessment, one way of implementing affirmative action is by altering test scoring procedures according to set guidelines. For example, an individual’s score on a test could be revised according to the individual’s group membership LEGAL AND ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS >Laws are rules that individuals must obey for the good of the society as a whole—or rules thought to be for the good of society as a whole. >ethics is a body of principles of right, proper, or good conduct >code of professional ethics is recognized and accepted by members of a profession, it defines the standard of care expected of members of that profession

5 >>minimum competency testing programs: formal testing programs designed to be used in decisions regarding various aspects of students’ education. The data from such programs was used in decision making about grade promotions, awarding of diplomas, and identification of areas for remedial instruction. >>Truth-in-testing legislation The primary objective of these laws was to provide testtakers with a means of learning the criteria by which they are being judged >Litigation Rules governing citizens’ behavior stem not only from legislatures but also from interpretations of existing law in the form of decisions handed down by courts. Litigation has sometimes been referred to as “judge-made law” because it typically comes in the form of a ruling by a court. >A psychologist acting as an expert witness in criminal litigation may testify on matters such as the competence of a defendant to stand trial Test-user qualifications Level A: Tests or aids that can adequately be administered, scored, and interpreted with the aid of the manual and a general orientation to the kind of institution or organization in which one is working (for instance, achievement or proficiency tests). Level B: Tests or aids that require some technical knowledge of test construction and use and of supporting psychological and educational fields such as statistics, individual differences, psychology of adjustment, personnel psychology, and guidance (e.g., aptitude tests and adjustment inventories applicable to normal populations). Level C: Tests and aids that require substantial understanding of testing and supporting psychological fields together with supervised experience in the use of these devices (for instance, projective tests, individual mental tests). Testing people with disabilities (1) transforming the test into a form that can be taken by the testtaker, (2) transforming the responses of the testtaker so that they are scorable, and (3) meaningfully interpreting the test data THE RIGHTS OF TESTTAKERS The right of informed consent Testtakers have a right to know why they are being evaluated, how the test data will be used, and what (if any) information will be released to whom. (1)the general purpose of the testing, (2) the specific reason it is being undertaken in the present case, and (3) the general type of instruments to beadministered >>If a testtaker is incapable of providing an informed consent to testing, such consent may be obtained from a parent or a legal representative. >>(a) do not use deception unless it is absolutely necessary, (b) do not use deception at all if it will cause participants emotional distress, and (c) fully debrief participants. The right to be informed of test findings >>advised testers to keep information about test results superficial and focus only on “positive” findings >>If the test results, findings, or recommendations made on the basis of test data are voided for any reason (such as irregularities in the test administration), testtakers have a right to know that as well.

The right to privacy and confidentiality

6 >>privacy right “recognizes the freedom of the individual to pick and choose for himself the time, circumstances, and particularly the extent to which he wishes to share or withhold from others his attitudes, beliefs, behavior, and opinions” >>privileged; it is information that is protected by law from disclosure in a legal proceeding refuse to answer a question put to them on the grounds that the answer might be self-incriminating >>confidentiality concerns matters of communication outside the courtroom, privilege protects clients from disclosure in judicial proceedings >>In some rare instances, the psychologist may be ethically (if not legally) compelled to disclose information if that information will prevent harm either to the client or to some endangered third party >>The ruling in Jaffee affi rmed that communications between a psychotherapist and a patient were privileged in federal courts. The HIPAA privacy rule cited Jaffee and defi ned privacy notes as “notes recorded (in any medium) by a health care provider who is a mental health professional documenting or analyzing the contents of conversation during a private counseling session or a group, joint, or family counseling session and that are separated from the rest of the individual’s medical record.”

The right to the least stigmatizing label

CHAPTER 3 A Statistics Refresher SCALES OF MEASUREMENT >measurement as the act of assigning numbers or symbols to characteristics of things (people, events, whatever) according to rules. >scale is a set of numbers (or other symbols) whose properties model empirical properties of the objects to which the numbers are assigned. .. discrete scale (female or male) .. continuous scale exists when it is theoretically possible to divide any of the values of the scale. >error refers to the collective infl uence of all of the factors on a test score or measurement beyond those specifi cally measured by the test or measurement

7 1. Nominal scales are the simplest form of measurement. These scales involve classification or categorization based on one or more distinguishing characteristics 2. Ordinal scales permit classifi cation, rank ordering on some characteristic >>Alfred Binet, a developer of the intelligence test that today bears his name, believed strongly that the data derived from an intelligence test are ordinal in nature. >>Rokeach Value Survey (uses ordinal form of measurement) list of personal values—such as freedom, happiness, and wisdom—are put in order according to their perceived importance to the testtaker >>“Intelligence, aptitude, and personality test scores are, basically and strictly speaking, ordinal. 3. interval scales contain equal intervals between numbersEach unit on the scale is exactly equal to any other unit on the scale. >>With interval scales, we have reached a level of measurement at which it is possible to average a set of measurements and obtain a meaningful result. 4. ratio scale has a true zero point. All mathematical operations can meaningfully be performed because there exist equal intervals between the numbers on the scale as well as a true or absolute zero point.

DESCRIBING DATA >>A distribution may be defi ned as a set of test scores arrayed for recording or study >>raw score is a straightforward, unmodifi ed accounting of performance that is usually numerical. simple tally, as in number of items responded to correctly on an achievement test >>frequency distribution, all scores are listed alongside the number of times each score occurred. The scores might be listed in tabular or graphic form >>simple frequency distribution to indicate that individual scores have been used and the data have not been grouped (E.G 85, 89, 87, 90) >>grouped frequency distribution. In a grouped frequency distribution, test-score intervals, also called class intervals, replace the actual test scores >>graph is a diagram or chart composed of lines, points, bars, or other symbols that describe and illustrate data. 1. histogram is a graph with vertical lines drawn at the true limits of each test score (or class interval), forming a series of contiguous rectangles. 2. bar graph rectangular bars typically are not contiguous 3. frequency polygon are expressed by a continuous line connecting the points where test scores or class intervals (as indicated on the X -axis) meet frequencies (as indicated on the Y -axis). >>normal or bell-shaped curve MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY >>measure of central tendency is a statistic that indicates the average or midmost score between the extreme scores in a distribution. >>In special instances, such as when there are only a few scores and one or two of the scores are extreme in relation to the remaining ones, a measure of central tendency other than the mean may be desirable

8 1. arithmetic mean (Average) equal to the sum of the observations (or test scores in this case) divided by the number of observations .. interval or ratio data when the distributions are believed to be approximately normal .. most stable and useful measure of central tendency. 2. median, defined as the middle score in a distribution .. The median is a statistic that takes into account the order of scores and is itself ordinal in nature. 3. Mode The most frequently occurring score in a distribution of scores .. bimodal distribution there are two scores that occur with the highest frequency. .. nominal data .. mode is useful in analyses of a qualitative or verbal nature MEASURES OF VARIABILITY >>Variability is an indication of how scores in a distribution are scattered...