Psych Notes PDF

Preview

Summary

Notes from lectures, Prof Caroline Connolly....

Description

Psych Day 1 Caroline Connolly [email protected] Office: M 1-3 PM/ TR 10 AM- 12 PM What is Psych? The scientific study of behavior (what we do) and mental processes (inner thoughts and feelings). What makes it scientific? Quote by Carl Sagan “At the heart of science is an essential tension between two seemingly contradictory attitudes -- an openness to new ideas, no matter how bizarre or counterintuitive they may be, and the most ruthless skeptical scrutiny of all ideas, old and new” Systematic, objective methods of observation help to learn about and explain phenomena. Behavior- any activity that can be observed, recorded, and measured. Mental Processes- all conscious and unconscious mental states. What is psych actually investigating? Attempting to describe the entire human race Diversity of Influences, such as joggers (fashion) Research Basic research- research carried out primarily to test a theory or empirical issues Applied research- research carried to investigate a real-world problem (practical problem)

How Psychology Advances Who we are and how we process info How individuals vary How experiences and environment affects us and others

Psych Day 2 How Psychology Advances  Individuals or teams trying to broaden our understanding  Psychologists making contributions to knowledge What constitutes knowledge- systematic observations How? By surveying random people, different areas, psychologist try to step back, unbiased opinions/data. Why? B/c it is crucial to make unbiased observations. What can ruin it? Leading questions, pre-existing ideas How to measure and record systematic observations? Data. Ultimately, data is knowledge (but each data appoint isn’t necessarily information on its own). Data Sets on APA Can you observe and measure everything? Is there anything you can’t or shouldn’t? This suggests scope of psychology can be limited. What can be reduced to data? Quantitative Data: the values of a variable that can be expressed numerically. Facilitated measurement and analysis. Personality Inventory- Big Five- CANOE (OCEAN). Able to describe personality to some extent (though not maybe same personality b/w two people if same score). Limited, but valuable. Qualitative Data: the values of a variable differ in kind (quality) rather than amount. Can be observed and reported, but may be subjective. (brain injury- case studies- Phineas Gage) Not everything must be quantified. Can art be looked through the eyes of psychology? Can ‘ good popular art’ be identified by learning about people’s preferences for art? Can one ultimately quantify and create art from data? Art created from the preferences of majority- 44 percent like blue, wild animals, Humans rely on inferences many times.

Psychology has shifted towards biological side now. Defined (focused) on how you do it. People tend to stray away from qualitative data b/c it can’t be compared, but brings up importance of critical thinking. Critical thinking- understanding the limitations of data. Humans alone have the ability to create language in order to exchange abstract thoughts/idea. Social Psychology- Vygotsky, Pierogi, etc

Day 3 Research Methodology Nonscientific Explanation: a loose explanation based on what we believe to be true about the world. Truthiness: The quality of something feeling to be true without any evidence suggesting it to be true. Scientific Explanation: a tentative explanation for a phenomenon, based objective observation, logic and subject to empirical test. Scientific Method: 1. Focus on a theory 2. Formulate a hypothesis 3. Conduct research 4. Analyze whether the data support or refute the theory 5. Report results and embark on further inquiry Consequences of nonscientific explanation: Plessy vs Ferguson (separate but equal) Kenneth B. Clark & Mamie Phipps Clark study- gave young children (preschool kindergarten) identical dolls (only differed in color). Found that there were significant psychological consequences due to separate but equal. Children found white dolls to be the “good” doll, whereas black doll was “bad”. This study was used to overturn Plessy vs Ferguson. The importance of accurate and consistent observations Unsystematic observations are often skewed. “The naked intellect is an extraordinarily inaccurate instrument” – Madeline Something The plural of anecdote is not statistic Aggression Are men more aggressive than women? Operationally define the variable aggression- any behavior performed with intentions to harm oneself or others.

Physical Aggression, Social Aggression (ignoring, gossiping, trying isolate someone from their friends). Research Designs (Descriptive, Correlational, Experimental_ Descriptive Designs Naturalistic Observation- only observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring environment, not intervening/interfering. Survey- a technique for investigating the self-reported attitudes, opinions, or behaviors of people. Self-reported bias Socially desirable responding/faking good: person responds in a way that is most socially acceptable And/or Better than average effect: people tend to describe themselves in positive ways that are not necessarily true. Biased Sampling Case Study- an individual is studied in-depth in hopes of revealing universal principles. i.e. investigate prisoners incarcerated for violent road rage. Correlational Designs # of personalized items on a car (bumper stickers) is correlated with road rage. Directionality & Third Variable Problems X and Y are correlated: -Z may cause X and Y -X may cause Y -Y may cause X Correlations indicate relationship patterns, not causes. When is it used? -gathering data in the early stages of research -relating two or more naturally occurring variables -if manipulating an independent variable is impossible or unethical Both increase at the same time = positive correlation One increase while other decreases= negative correlation

No relationship between the variables= zero correlation. Experimental Designs Establishing cause and effect i.e. Take from a population, 100 kids (sample)- randomly assignment to exposure to violent TV vs no exposure to violent TV (independent variables) to see how it affects aggression (dependent variable) Population: all possible individuals in the group Sample: the group chosen to participate Random sampling- each member of the population has an equal chance of inclusion into a sample. If the survey sample is biased, its results are often spurious. Type A- competitiveness, impatience, inability to relax Type B- relaxed, noncompetitive, accommodating Correlational studies established relationship between type A behavior and incidence of coronary heart disease. There were attempts to rule out third variables (by statistical means) such as smoking, obesity, serum cholesterol level etc. Type A behavior remained an independent predictor of heart attacks. Experimental studies attempt to demonstrate causal relationship between type A behavior and heart attacks. Group 1: counseling to avoid risky behaviors such as smoking and eating fatty foods. Group 2: counseling to reduce type A behavior Three years later, significantly fewer recurrent heart attacks among group 2 patients.

Day 4 Notes Define the key variables and the sample, provide operational definitions, and state the most suitable research design. Independent Variable- Age Dependent Variable- Short-term memory Sample- 50 people from age 20-30 (25 Male 25 Female) and 50 people from age 70-80 (25 male 25 female) Short term memory- information that is stored in the span of 1 minute from the stimuli. Design- index cards with various pictures of animals will each have a match pair. The participants must match one card to its pair, the quicker they finish the test, the better their short-term memory. Cross-sectional approach- different groups of people tested at the same time Longitudinal approach- one person tested many times over a long period of time. Do not have access to unconscious mind Falsifiability- conceive of an observation or an argument which could negate them (nullify)

Independent Variable: Caffeine given or not Dependent: Level of anxiety Sample: 100 people varying in caffeine intake Anxiety- feelings of worry, sweating, increase blood pressure, The important of accurate and consistent observations- external validity, internal validity, falsifiability, reliability External validity- the degree to which the results of a study may be generalized. Having a misrepresentative sample can undermine the external validity of a study. Generalizing White rats are hardy, cheap, easy to rear, well adapted to lab life, and easy to obtain. College students tend to be young, high in cognitive skill, high in need for peer approval, easy to obtain.

Internal Validity- the extent to which the data collected in a study addresses the research hypothesis in the way intended Falsifiability- “No amount of experimentation can ever prove me right; a single experiment can prove me wrong.” –Albert Einstein (Freud is an example of why it is important) Replication- a reliable measure produces similar results when repeated measurements are made under identical conditions.

Day 5 Notes- Communication Exam Chapter 1, 2,3 (50 percent/more on Chapter 3) Chapters 1 and -2: concepts, bullet points Chapter 3: not focused on genetic info, diagram of brain, neuron, neurotransmission Recitations 1 and 2 Bring PennCard and a pencil The Nervous System Everything psychological is simultaneously biological Central Nervous System (CNS): the brain and the spinal cord Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body. If injury to spinal cord, it can cut off the communication to your body Autonomic Nervous System (PNS): control glands and other muscles of our internal organs. Automatically regulates internal states: heartbeat, blood pressure, body temperature, digestion, hormone levels, glucose levels. Sympathetic Nervous System (ANS): “arouses” (fight or flight) STRESS. Pupils dilate, heartbeat accelerates, inhibits digestion, relaxes bladder, Parasympathetic Nervous System (ANS): “calms” (rest and digest) Pupils contract. Somatic Nervous System (PNS): transmits signals (sights, sounds, smells, tastes, pain) from the sensory organs (+plus skin) to the CNS. Relays motor commands from CNS to skeletal muscles of arms, legs, torso, head. This directs body’s voluntary movement. The neuron is the basic unit of communication in the nervous system. Mostly 0.01-0.05 mm in diameter. It is a specialized cell in the nervous system that accumulates and transmits information.  Cell Body: the cell’s life support center. Has the DNA and cytoplasm  Dendrites: receive messages from other cells (Branch-like). Receive signals from 10s of thousands of neurons.  Axons: passes messages away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands. Long extension of neuron and covered in myelin.  Terminal branches of axon: form junctions with other cells.

Different kinds of neurons o Neurons from the spinal cord (stained in red) o Neurons from cerebral cortex o Neurons from the cerebellum Sensory/afferent neurons: send information form the body’s tissues and sensory organs inward to the brain and spinal cord (CNS), which processes the information Motor/efferent neurons: carry outgoing information from the CNS to the body’s tissues. Any voluntary movement involves these neurons. Interneurons: carry messages from one neuron to another. Most neurons in the nervous system are interneurons. Signals do not have to always travel to the brain, can simply travel to spinal cord. Glial Cells: insulate, support, and nourish neurons 85 billion (almost same # of neurons). These cells have many functions. Both during development and in supporting the function. Myelin: speed propagation. These cells wrap around axons of some neurons, providing insulating ‘myelin sheath’.

Distinguishing gray and white matter: This vertical slice through the brain shows that the brain tissue includes so-called white matter, which mostly consists of myelinated axons and gray matter (shown in beige here), which is made up cell bodies, dendrites, and unmyelinated axons. Multiple sclerosis: de-myelinated axons slow down neural impulses. How do neurons communicate? Neural impulse: action potential. Electrical signal traveling down the axon. (Neurons do not touch each other, travels through synapse gap) Action Potential: an electrical impulse that surges along an axon, caused by an influx of positive ions in the neuron. The resting membrane potential is negatively charged. Polarized: when a neuron has more negative ions inside than outside. Depolarization: occurs when positive ions enter the neuron, making it more susceptible to fire action potential.

When the membrane is simulated ion channels open leading to an action potential. Ion movement (letting in sodium ions potassium out) leads to an excess of positively charges particles inside the membrane, which produces a positive voltage swing. The excitation spreads, leading to propagation of the action potential All-or-none law: once it’s launched, further increases in stimulus intensity have no effect on it magnitude. Intensity can result from: number of neurons firing and frequency of firing. Action Potential: each neuron receives excitatory and inhibitory signals from many neurons. When the excitatory signals minus the inhibitory signals exceed a minimum intensity (threshold), the neuron fires an action potential. Synapse: a junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. This tiny gap is called the synaptic gap or cleft. Neurotransmitters: released from the axon of one neuron, cross the synapse, and affect receptor molecules located on the postsynaptic membrane of another neuron. Lock and key model: transmitter molecules will affect the postsynaptic membrane only if the molecule’s shape fits into certain synaptic… Serotonin pathways are involved with mood regulation. Dopamine pathways are involved with diseases like schizophrenia and Parkinson’s disease. Agonists (facilitate): increase how much neurotransmitter is made, so there is more inside each vesicle. They can block the reuptake of neurotransmitters. They can mimic a particular neurotransmitter, binding to that neurotransmitter’s postsynaptic receptors and either activating them or increasing the neurotransmitter’s effects. Antagonists: decrease the release of neurotransmitters, so there are fewer inside each vesicle. They can help destroy the neurotransmitters in the synapse. They can mimic a particular neurotransmitter, binding to that neurotransmitter’s postsynaptic receptors enough to block the neurotransmitter binding.

Day 6 Notes Capgras Syndrome- makes one believe that loved ones are not who they are (when visually presented with them). Disconnect between emotion and something

Left and Right Brains Amygdala: neural centers in the limbic system linked to emotion Hippocampus: a structure in the limbic system linked to memory Corpus Callosum: axon fibers connecting two cerebral hemispheres Thalamus: relays messages between lower brain centers and the cerebral cortex Hypothalamus: controls maintenance functions such as eating; helps govern endocrine systems linked to emotion and reward Pituitary: master endocrine gland Reticular Formation: helps control arousal Medulla: controls heartbeat and breathing Spinal Cord: pathway for neural fibers travelling to and from brain; controls simple reflexes Cerebellum: coordinates voluntary movement and balance Cerebral Cortex: ultimate control and information processing center  Frontal Lobe: thought, planning, movement  Parietal Lobe: touch, spatial relations  Temporal Lobe: hearing, memory  Occipital Lobe: vision The prefrontal Cortex Phineas Gage: his accident led to major personality changes Lobotomy: deliberate damaging of the prefrontal cortex; used in the late 1940s early 1950s Prefrontal Cortex: Cortical Damage: damage at identifiable sites can produce:  apraxias (disorders in action)  agnosias (disorders in perception)  aphasias (disorders of language)  disorders of planning or social cognition Thalamus: serves as a major relay and integration center for sensory information Cerebellum: bodily coordination; controls muscular coordination and equilibrium Facial Recognition

Visual Agnosia- inability to recognize a visual stimulus despite the ability to see and describe it Prosopagnosia- difficulty recognizing faces- even immensely familiar faces. Usually involves damage to areas in temporal and parietal lobes. Hippocampus: memory formation, temporal lobe structure that plays a pivotal role in learning and forming new memories. Amygdala: emotion; temporal lobe structure that plays a central role in emotion and evaluating stimuli. Sensory Cortex: input; left hemisphere section receive input from the body’s right side Motor Cortex: output; left hemisphere section control the body’s right side Hemineglect: the result of certain right parietal lobe lesions that leave a patient inattentive to stimuli to her left, including the left side of the body. Temporal Lobe: audition; includes tissue crucial for hearing and many aspects of language use Language Broca’s Area: production of spoken and written language; controls speech muscles via the motor cortex Wernicke’s Area: interpretation of language; interprets auditory code Angular Gyrus: transforms visual representations into an auditory code Plasticity: a property of the brain that allows it to change as a result of experience, drugs, or injury The nervous system is plastic– subject to alteration in the way it functions, such as: o Changes in how much neurotransmitter a presynaptic neuron release o Changes in neuron sensitivity to neurotransmitters o Creating new connections by growing new dendritic spines. Corpus Callosum: the thick bundle of nerves connecting the cerebral hemispheres

Day 7 Notes- NEW Consciousness Awareness of ourselves and our environment Some occur spontaneously- daydreaming, drowsiness, dreaming Some are physiologically induced- hallucinations, orgasm, food or oxygen starvation Consciousness emerges from the interaction of individual brain events. HAH, Thalamus, and reticular formation crucial for consciousness RF- arousal Thalamus- sensory Amygdala- Emotional significance Not singularly linked to consciousness but all linked Awareness of different aspects of the world is associated with function in different parts of the brain. Prefrontal cortex- I understand plans Frontal motor cortex- I’m all about movement Parietal love- I’m aware of space Temporal lobe- I hear things Occipital lobe- I see things. Global workspace hypothesis  Consciousness arise through brain process that are active at any point in time.  No single area of the brain responsible for general “awareness” Function of consciousness The cognitive unconscious allows processes that are fast, effortless, and automatic. Consciousness may be needed when we wish to rise above habit or resist the temptation of the moment. Attention- the ability to focus on certain stimuli. Attention is basically looking through a tunnel Selective Attention- our conscious awareness

Student who uses internet or text in class perform more poorly in college courses than those who refrain (Gingerich & Lineweaver, 2014; Junco, 2012) Sitting in close proximity to someone on the internet is correlated with earning lower grades (Sana, Weston, & Cepeda, 2013) Inattentional Blindness- the inability to see an object or person in our midst Simons & Chabris (1999) showed that half of the observers failed to see the gorilla-suited assistant in a ball passing game. Change Blindness- change in a visual stimulus is introduced and the observer does not notice it. BlindsightAltered ConsciounessSleep Deprivation  Impaired concentration  Impaired cognitive performance  Emotional irritability  Depressed immune system  Fatigue and subsequent death 

Microsleeps

Frequency of accidents increase with loss of sleep Biological Rhythms and sleep The biological clock signals the pineal gland to se...