Chapter 4 Psych - Notes PDF

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Psych Chapter 4- Nature, Nurture, and Human Diversity 1) Behavior Genetics: Prediciting Individual Differences a) Behavior Genetics- the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior. b) Heredity- the genetic transfer of characterisitics from parents to offspring c) Environment- every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us. d) Genes: Our Codes for Life i) Humans have 46 chromosomes, 23 from father and 23 from mother, which contain DNA. DNA is composed of genes, or the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins. ii) Chromosomes- threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes. iii) DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)- a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes. iv) Humans all contain a genome, or the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism’s chromosomes. v) Each living organisims genome may have striking similarities to other living organisms--- Humans and bananas e) Twin and Adoption Studies i) Identical vs. Fraternal Twins (1) Identical Twins- develop froma single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms. May not have the same number of copies of genes, accounting for disease in one twin and not in the other. Depending on whether or not they share a placenta, one twin may be less nourished than the other. (2) Fraternal twins- develop from seperate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than ordinary brothers and sisters, but they share a prenatal environment. ii) Separated Twins (1) Ex: Jim Springer and Jim Lewis (textbook example.) (2) Often share similarities in appearance, voice, tastes, personality, abilities, attitudes, interests, and fears. iii) Biological Versus Adoptive Relatives (1) Due to adoption, genetic relatives and environmental relatives have become a concept within psychology. People who grow up together, whether biological siblings or adopted, do not share personality traits.... “The normal range of environments shared by a family’s children has

little discernible impact on their personalities.”... due to unique life experience and events. f) Temperament and Heredity i) Temperament- a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity. (1) Tend to persist into adulthood, although they can be controlled easier then. g) Gene-Environment Interaction i) Humans have adaptive capacity in accordance with their individual environments. ii) Interaction- the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity) 2) Molecular Behavior Genetics a) Molecular Genetics- the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes. b) Certain genes influence behavior--- Molecular Behavior Genetics is the study of how structure and function interact with our environment to influence behavior. c) Epigenetics- “above” or “in addition to” genetics; the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change. i) Genes react to the environment they are in 3) Evolutionary Psychology: Understanding the Human Nature a) Evolutionary Psychology- the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind,m using principles of natural selection. i) Natural selection- the principle that inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations. (1) Organisms varied offspring compete to survive (2) Certain biological and behavioral variations are more fit for reproduction and therefore increase chances of survival in certain environments. (3) Those that survive are more likely to pass on their specific genes (4) Over time, population characteristics may change. b) Natural Selection and Adaptation i) Traits that give a species a “reproductive advantage” will prevail in the species. ii) “Nature has indeed selected advantageous variations from the new gene combinations produced at each human conception plus the mutations that sometimes result.” (1) ALL OF WHICH CONTRIBUTE TO THE FITNESS OF SURVIVING SPECIES. c) Evolutionary Success Helps Explain Similarities i) Similarities arise from the shared human genome ii) There tends to be more similarities in isolated populations

d) Evolutionary Psychology Today i) Second Darwinian Revolution- “application of darwinian principles to psychology.” e) An Evolutionary Explanation of Human Sexuality i) Male-Female Differences in Sexuality (1) Men tend to engage in sexual activities more frequently than women. (2) Sexual Overpeception Bias- men require little emotional closeness before intercourse, therefore making them express more sexual interest in their partners. (3) Men (homo and heterosexual) tend to care more about what their sexual partner looks like. ii) Natural Selection and Mating Preferences (1) Because women are responsible for reproduction, they tend to be ‘choosier’ than men when it comes to sexual activity. (2) Women prefer “tall men with slim waists and broad shoulders” (3) “Men pair widely, women pair wisely.” (4) Men prefer a woman with a waist ⅓ that of her hips, as it shows she will bear children well. (5) Nature selects behaviors that increase genetic success… as carriers of genetic legacy, we are similarly predisposed. iii) Critiquing the Evolutionary Perspective (1) Social Script- a culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations. 4) Culture, Gender, and Other Environmental Influences a) How Does Experience Influence Development? i) Our genes influence our development, depending on environment. b) Experience and Brain Development i) Developing neural connections prepare our brain for thought, language, and other later experiences. (1) Nature and nurture interact to scultp our synapses, or brain activity through sights, smells, touches, tastes, music, movement etc: (2) Certain synapses will remain important while others will die out. (3) Brains have the characteristic of plasticity, or the ability to change and respond to new experiences. c) How Much Credit or Blame Do Parents Deserve? i) Parenting in terms of extremes such as abuse, confidence, etc: do have an effect on children d) Peer Influence i) Because children seek to fit into groups and be accepted, peers influence much of the behavior and tendencies of children. e) Cultural Influences i) Humanity has the ability to interact, to learn, to adapt.

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Culture- the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from generation to the next. (1) Humans are social and are able to be in a society iii) Variation Across Cultures (1) Cultural groups develop their own norms- an understood rule for accepted and expected behavior. Norms prescribe “proper” behavior. iv) Variation Over Time (1) Cultures vary and compete for resources, and thus evolve over time… conditions change and progress. f) Culture and the Self i) Individualism- giving priority to one’s goals over group goals and defining one’s identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications. (1) Move in and out of social groups more easily. (2) Values Independent Discover and express one’s uniqueness Personal achievement and fulfillment; rights and liberties; self-esteem Coping method; change reality Self Based morality Temporary or casual relationships where confrontation is acceptable. Behavior reflects the individual’s personality and attitudes. ii) Collectivism- giving priority to the goals of one’s group (often one’s extended family or work group) and defining one’s identity accordingly. (1) Focused on a sense of belonging and security. (2) Values Interdependent Maintain connections, fits in, performs roles Group goals and solidarity; social responsibilities and relationships; family duty Accomodate to reality Defined by social networks (duty- based) Few, close and enduring; harmony is valued Behavior reflects social norms and roles. 5) Gender Development a) Sex- in psychology, the biologically influenced characteristics by which people define male and female . b) Gender- in psychology, the socially influenced characteristics by which people define boy, girl, man or woman. i) Body defines sex and mind defines gender.

c) Similarities and Differences i) Similarities (1) 46 chromosomes, 45 of which are unisex. (2) “Have comparable creativity and intelligence and feel the same emotions and longings.” ii) Differences (1) Girls enter puberty a year before boys. (2) Women convey more emotion than men. iii) Aggression (1) Any physically or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally. (2) Men are most likely to be more violently aggressive, while women are more likely to commit relational aggression. (a) An act of aggression intended to harm a person’s relationship or social standing. iv) Social Power (1) People believe that men tend to be more socially powerful than women. v) Social Connectedness (1) Males tend to be independent, focus on activity and competition, and problem solving… more likely to hazard answers than to admit they do not know. (2) Women tend to be more interdependent, focus on social relationships, have more intimate relationships and have deeper connections with people. (3) Women are usually regarded as problem solvers and are turned to during times of emotional stress. 6) The Nature of Gender: Our Biological Sex a) Biology influences gender i) Genetically- males and females have different sex chromosomes. ii) Physiologically- males and females have differing concentrations of sex hormones , which trigger other anatomical differences. b) Prenatal Sexual Development i) Sex characteristics appear 6 weeks into gestation (1) X Chromosome- the sex chromosome found in both males and females. Females typically have two X chromosomes; males typically have one. An X chromosome from each parent produces a female child. (2) Y chromosome- the sex chromosome typically found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, if produces a male child. (a) Testosterone- the most important male sex hormone. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone

in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs during the fetal period, and the development of the males sex characteristics during puberty. (3) Male/female hormones affect the growth and development of the brain. ii) Adolescent Sexual Development (1) Puberty- the period of sexual maturation, when a person becomes capable of reproducing (2) During the beginnings of puberty, the primary sex characteristics, or the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible, develop. (3) In addition secondary sex characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, and the deepening of the male voice, and growth of body hair, develop. (a) Spermarche- the first ejaculation, marking puberty for boys. (b) Menarche- the first menstrual period, marking puberty for girls. c) Sexual Development Variations i) Intersex- a condition present at birth due to unusual combinations of male and female chromosomes, hormones, and anatomy; possessing biological sexual characteristics of both sexes. (1) Originally suggested sex-reassignment surgery 7) The Nurture of Gender: Our Culture and Experience a) Gender Roles- a set of expected behaviors, attitudes, and traits for males or for females. b)...