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Week 1LectureWhat is psychology?  The scientific study of how people think, feel, and behave.  Both a science and a profession.  The practice of psychology is an application of the science of psychology. Fields within psychology  LearningBiological psychology  Comparative psychology  Social p...

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Week 1 Lecture What is psychology?   

The scientific study of how people think, feel, and behave. Both a science and a profession. The practice of psychology is an application of the science of psychology.

Fields within psychology               

Learning Biological psychology Comparative psychology Social psychology Clinical psychology Personality psychology Cross cultural psychology Perception Health psychology Organisational psychology Neuropsychology Forensic psychology Cognitive psychology Developmental psychology Indigenous psychology

Inattentional Blindness Naive Realism

Readings From Inquiry to Understanding Chapter 1.1 and 1.2     

Psychology is a vast discipline encompassing the study of perceptions, emotions, thoughts, and observable human behaviours from an enormous array of perspectives. Human behaviour is difficult to predict in part because almost all actions are produced by many factors. Common sense cannot always be trusted. We trust our common sense largely because we are prone to naïve realism: the belief that we see the world exactly as it is. Sometimes what appears to be obvious can trip us up when it comes to evaluating ourselves and others. Science is an approach to evidence and explanations of the world around us and in us. Pseudoscience: claims that pretend to be science. Pseudoscience lacks the safeguards against confirmation bias and belief perseverance that characterises science. Pseudoscience’s tend to rely heavy on anecdotal evidence.

Week 2 LECTURE 1

Ways to Acquire Knowledge 1. Intuition: knowledge about behaviour based on opinion, faith, belief, or feelings (common sense). 2. Authority: knowledge about behaviour that comes from an expert or trustworthy source (especially supported by prior accuracy) 3. Rational Induction: knowledge about behaviour based on the combination of known information or 'facts’. 4. Empirical Science: knowledge about behaviour tested and confirmed via the scientific method. All are valid bases for generating hypotheses however, only empirical science is a valid method for testing hypotheses and confirming, and therefore producing scientific psychological knowledge. Principles of Scientific Thinking 1. Extraordinary claims need extraordinary evidence 2. Predictions need to be testable and falsifiable 3. Simpler explanations are better explanations (Occam's razor) 4. If it’s true, it should be replicable 5. Rival hypotheses should be excluded 6. Correlation does not equal causation Thinking and Reasoning 1. Deduction (Aristotle) Syllogistic reasoning or logic - comes from Greek word for deduction - Aristotle outlines the basic structure as consisting of accepting things that are known what can we know of necessity - syllogistic reasoning involves premises followed by a conclusion Conditional Reasoning - a conditional reasoning proposition consists of antecedent and consequent - they are in the form if p then q - where p is the antecedent and p is the consequent - what follows from the proposition is a re-statement of the implications of the conditional proposition 2. Induction - associated with hypothesis generation and testing - involves the continuous adjustments of one’s beliefs

There are two types of inductive assertion: a. strong - this is where there is good reason to accept the assertion under consideration. b. weak - here there is poor or weak support. Confirmation bias: - humans are prone to belief persistence or 'resist belief change’. - this has shown itself in several experimental findings around the topic of confirmation bias 3. Abduction - this is a concept used in philosophy and computing science among others to indicate the process of hypothesis generation - more exactly it means that selection of the best explanatory hypothesis for a known set of facts - abduction is almost the reverse of deduction in that the conclusion is accepted and the process involves the selection of the best explanatory set of premises - probable conclusion from what you know - major premise is evident but minor premise and therefore conclusion is only probable Psychological Theories Structuralism - historically, predominantly in Europe - Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener - they asked - what is the structure of the mind? - similarities with philosophies of rationalists - introspection is its main method of investigation Functionalism - what is the practical use of the mind? - combination of evolution and pragmatism - William James - uses all methods to aid in this understanding (combine theoretical and empirical) - interested in commonalities and individual differences Evolutionary Psychology - many theorists (Cosmides and Tooby)

- psychological processes as evolutionary adaptions - evolution is fundamental to many aspects of psychology Psychodynamic Perspective - Sigmund Freud - Based on 3 assumptions: 1. actions are determined by thoughts, feelings and wishes 2. much of mental activity occurs outside of conscious awareness 3. mental processes might conflict with one another - behaviours, health symptoms could be the product of unconscious motives - while it was deemed by many to be too extreme, subsequent research has confirmed that the vast majority of mental activity occurs out of our conscious awareness Behaviourism - John Watson and B.F. Skinner - reject the concept of the mind: instead, Tabula Rasa (blank slate) - argued psychology should focus solely on observable actions - control the conditions and one can control the behaviour Humanism - Carl Rogers - emphasis on the actualisation of the self - this approach assumes the uniqueness of the individual - utilises empathy and attempts to focus on the individual Cognitive Perspective - many theorists - Piaget, Neisser - how people perceive, process, retrieve and utilise information - Under behaviourism, psychology produced 'a generation of disaffected cognitive revolutionaries and an extraordinary number of well-trained pigeons' (Gilbert, 1999, pg. 8) - experimental methods used to infer unobservable mental processes --Lecture 2

Motivation What is motivation? - motivation is the driver of directed behaviours, particularly our wants and needs. - involves both biological and social drives Drives Approach motivation - drives propel engagement in some behaviours Avoidance motivation - drives repel engagement in other behaviours Apparent obsession with boosting motivation e.g. personal trainers, motivational speakers. However, while motivational speakers may invigorate biological drivers (adrenaline), long term benefits are lacking. Early Perspectives - Psychodynamic Perspective (Freud) - theorised behaviours motivated by unconscious and conscious desires, which are not in unison Three theoretical constructs of psyche: - Id - unconscious, instinctual, irrational drives, Eros and Thantos - Superego - morally responsible drives, operates at preconscious awareness - Ego - conscious, rational mind, ensures Id and superego drives manifest appropriately How can we measure unconscious desires? - Thematic Apperception Tests (TATs) claim to measure unconscious desires - Longitudinal Study 1950-1962 (McAdams and Valliant) - TAT responses assessed four social motives: achievement, power, affiliation, and intimacy motivation - self report study of motives - psychosocial adjustments: income, job promotion, marriage satisfaction - Results: achievement more predictive of long-term entrepreneurial success than self-report Drive Reduction Theories - thirst hunger and sexual frustration drives us to reduce the averseness of these states - some drivers are hierarchical - thirst satisfaction over hunger satisfaction

- motivated to maintain psychological homeostasis Yerkes-Dodson Law Incentive Theories - drive reduction theories (DRT) inadequate; we repeatedly engage in behaviours despite satisfaction of drives (e.g. keep eating after hungry) - incentive theories built on DRT - driven by positive goals - incentive theories further differentiate between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation Relative Importance of Needs - some physiological needs and physical needs are more important than others - physiological (primary) needs are more important that psychological (secondary) needs Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Importance of Feedback - Bandura and Cervone's(1983) --Readings From Inquiry to Understanding Chapter 11.4 - Motivation - motivation refers to the drives (wants and needs) that propel us in specific directions - drive reduction theory states that drives such as hunger or thirst pull us to act in certain ways - the Yerkes-Dodson’s law posits an inverted u-shape relation between arousal and mood/performance

Week 4 Notes Lecture The Cognitive Elements of Classical Conditioning  

classical conditioning only occurs when an animal has learned to set up an expectation. conditioning is easier when the CS is an unfamiliar event than a familiar one.

How does the CR form?  

Contiguity theory - when two stimuli are presented together in time, associations are formed between the two. temporally contiguous events ten to be associated together.

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this theory suggest that in order to form a CR, one merely needs to put the two stimuli together in time. Contiguity theory explains most of the data however, it does not fully explain all of it.

Contingency  

contingency is the relationship between two events, one being 'contingent' or a consequence of the other event. that is, the occurrence of a future event is possible, given that one event has occurred, but cannot always be predicted with certainty.

Rescorla   

Rescorla challenged the simple mechanistic views of learning. conceptualised classical conditioning as involving the acquisition of information about the relationship among events in the environment. two different association patterns produces two different outcomes.

How does the CR form?    

contingency theory - a CR develops when the CS is able to predict the occurrences of the US. this theory heavily relies on predictability and expectation. after repeated CS-US pairings, the animal can begin to predict when the US is coming based on the CS being present. when the CS is presented, the animal forms an expectancy of the US. This expectancy is what fuels the CR.

Excitatory Conditioning 

relative likelihood of something occurring given that something else did.

Inhibitory Conditioning 

relative likelihood of something NOT occurring given that something else did.

What affects the acquisition of the CR?      

in addition to contiguity and contingency other factors that matter are: sequence of the CS-US presentation strength of the US number of CS-US pairings reliability and uniqueness of CS as a predictor of US belongingness of CS with the US

Sequence of CS-US Presentation       

the time when the CS and US are presented is particularly important in how the CR is formed. Delayed conditioning - CS comes on first and overlaps with the us coming on. Trace conditioning - a gap between the CS and US Simultaneous conditioning - CS and US come on at the same time and go off at the same time. Backward conditioning - US comes before the CS. CS should function as a signal that the US is about to occur. such a signal is most effective when it comes before the US or at the same time, US follows closely in time and provides new information about the US.

Other Factors that Influence the CR  

Strength of the US Number of CS-US pairings

Opponent Process Model of Motivation Solomon and Corbit (1947, 1978)    

basic idea is that emotion-arousing stimuli causes emotional response. examined fear and relief of skydivers before and after their jumps. beginners experience extreme fear, with repeated jumps the fear decreases. an event that elicits a strong emotional response produces an opposite response when that event is withdrawn (Solomon 1980)

Opponent-Process Theory       

emotional after reaction - an emotional stimulus creates an initial response that is followed by adaption, then opposite response. with repeated exposure to the stimulus, the pattern changes the primary affective response (a-process) habituates the after reaction (b-process) strengthens. theory assumes that neurophysiological mechanisms involved in emotional behaviour serve to maintain emotional stability. A-Process: initial reaction, plot positive side of graph regardless of whether you find the experience pleasant or not. Onset of the stimulus causes a sudden emotional reaction, which quickly reaches its peak. Lasts as long as the stimulus is present, then ends quickly. B-Process: after reaction, the offset of the stimulus causes an emotional after reaction that in some sense is the opposite of the initial reaction. Is more sluggish in its onset and decay than the initial reaction.

Common Characteristics of Emotional Reactions 1. emotional reactions are biphasic; a primary reaction is followed by an opposite after reaction. 2. the primary reaction becomes weaker with repeated stimulations. 3. the after reaction is strengthened.

Readings From Inquiry to Understanding Chapter 6.2 Distinguishing Operant Conditioning from Classical Conditioning Operant conditioning is learning controlled by its consequences. Operant conditioning involves many of the same processes, including acquisition and extinction, as classical conditioning. Nevertheless, in operant conditioning, responses are emitted rather than elicited, the reinforcement is contingent on behaviour and responses mostly involve skeletal (voluntary) muscles rather than the autonomic nervous system. Thorndike's Law of Effect Thorndike’s law of effect tells us that if a response, in the presence of a stimulus, is followed by a reward, it is likely to be repeated, resulting in the gradual ‘stamping in’ of S-R (stimulus-response) connections.

Reinforcement can be either positive (presentation of an outcome) or negative (withdrawal of an outcome). Negative reinforcement increases the rate of a behaviour, whereas punishment decreases it. One disadvantage of punishment is that it tells the organism only what not to do, not what to do. Schedules of Reinforcement There are four major schedules of reinforcement: fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, and variable interval. These four schedules differ along two dimensions: consistency of administering reinforcement (fixed or variable) and the basis of administering reinforcement (ratio or interval). Applications of Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning has a number of applications to everyday life, including shaping—which is a fundamental technique of animal training—and overcoming procrastination. Psychologists have also harnessed operant conditioning principles to develop token economies and other therapeutically useful applications. Operant conditioning principles probably also help to explain certain irrational behaviours in everyday life, including superstitions.

Week 5 Notes Neuroanatomy Exercise Directional Terminology Superior 

towards the top of the head

Inferior 

towards the feet

Anterior 

refers to the front of the body or the brain.

Posterior 

refers to the back of the body or the brain.

Dorsal 

refers to the superior portion of the brain.

Ventral 

refers to the inferior portion of the brain.

Rostral  

Caudal

in the spine points up towards the head in the brain Rostral points towards the anterior part of the brain

 

in the spine points down towards the end of the chord in the brain points towards the posterior part of the brain

Sagittal Section 

slice down the middle of the brain dividing the brain into two separate halves.

Transverse (or horizontal) Section 

slicing the brain perpendicular to the long axis of the body

Coronal (or frontal) Section 

slice is made parallel to the long axis of the body.

Medial 

the parts of the brain that are closer to the mid-line.

Lateral 

the parts of the brain closer to the sides

The Cerebrum       

The cerebrum is the bulk of the brain mass-wise (85%) and is most of what you see when you look at the outside of a whole brain. The thick tissue folded into ridges are called gyri, while the grooves between them are called sulci. The gyri are the grey matter of the brain, or the brain cells. There is also white matter in the brain that you can't see from the outside which is the connections between cells. The sulci are important as certain sulci act as landmarks in the brain to indicate where one lobe of the brain ends and the next one begins. There are five major lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, and insula. The cerebrum is split down the middle length ways into two halves: the left and right hemispheres of the brain. The cerebrum controls and integrates motor, sensory and higher mental functions, such as thought, reason, emotion, and memory.

The Lobes Frontal Lobe  

The frontal lobes form the most anterior part of the cerebrum. They lie above the orbits, extending posteriorly to the central sulci and below to the lateral sulci. They are involved in functions including motor function, problem solving, spontaneity, memory, language, initiation, judgment, impulse control, and social and sexual behaviour.

Parietal Lobe  

The parietal lobes lie behind the central sulcus and above the lateral sulcus. An arbitrary line drawn from the parieto-occipital sulcus to the lateral sulcus forms their posterior margin. They deal with touch, pain, proprioception (where our body is in space) and taste.

Temporal Lobe

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

The temporal lobes lie below the lateral sulci and are limited posteriorly by arbitrary lines from the preoccipital incisures to the parieto-occipital sulci. Each lateral surface is divided into three parallel gyri by two sulci: the superior and inferior sulci. They are involved in the primary organisation of sensory input.

Occipital Lobe  

The occipital lobes form the most posterior part of the cerebrum. An arbitrary line joining the pre-occipital incisure to the parieto-occipital sulcus marks the anterior limit of each occipital lobe. They form the centres of visual perception.

Key Regions of the Brain Broca's Area  

Broca's area is as small portion of cortex located on the lateral and inferior portion of the frontal lobe near the primary motor cortex. Function - It converts thoughts of words into a program of muscle movements either for the muscles of the mouth and throat to produce speech or for the hand to produce writing.

Wernicke's Area  

Wernicke's area is a small area of cortex that lies at the border of the parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes. Function - Spoken or read words are processed and turned into meaningful ideas here; it is also where words are picked to convey ideas.

Prefrontal Cortex  

The prefrontal cortex forms the anterior part of the frontal lobes of the cerebrum, lying in front of the motor and premotor areas. Function - It decides on reactions to current events based on past experience and an appreciation of the rules of society.

Primary Motor Area  

The primary motor area is located on the pre-central gyrus of the frontal lobe. Function - It generates neural impulses that control the execution of movement; every part of the body is represented in the primary motor cortex, and these representations are arranged somatotopic ally.

Primary Somato...