Psych Notes Chapter 10 PDF

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Psychology Notes Chapter 10 Intelligence • “intelligence war”: does we have an inborn general mental capacity? What Is Intelligence? • intelligence = whatever intelligence tests measure • typically school smarts • qualities that enable success (different for different times and cultures) • definition: the mental potential to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations Spearman’s General Intelligence Factor and Thurstone’s Response • general intelligence: a general intelligence factor (g) that underlies specific mental abilities • introduced by Charles Spearman • LL Thurstone identified 7 groups of mental abilities: • word fluency • verbal comprehension • spatial ability • perceptual speed • numerical ability • inductive reasoning • memory ➡ still some g factor because those who did well on one tended to do well on the others as well • certain abilities tend to be prominent together and correlate, which hints towards a g factor • Shtoshi Kanazawa • said that general intelligence helps us solve unfamiliar problems • more common problems use a different intelligence said g intelligence correlates with ability to solve unfamiliar problems • • does NOT correlate with ability to solve problems in familiar situations\ Theories of Multiple Intelligences Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences • Howard Garner • identified 8 relatively independent intelligences • naturalist • linguistic • logical-mathematical • musical • spatial

• bodily-kinesthetic • interpersonal • interpersonal ➡ possible 9th: existential intelligence • ability to ponder large questions about life, death, and existence savant syndrome - a person who is limited in mental abilities but has an exceptional • skill • scores low on intelligence tests • typically have autism and are male Sternberg’s Three Intelligences • Robert Sternberg • triarchic theory 1) Analytical intelligence (academic problem solving): ability to solve well-defined problems that have a single answer • assessed by intelligence tests • can predict school grades and vocational success 2) Creative intelligence: ability to generate new ideas • demonstrated in innovative smarts 3) Practical Intelligence: ability to solve everyday tasks that may have more than one possible answer • ex: managing problems that come up in a job • Gardner and Sternberg agree that... 1) multiple abilities can contribute to life success • not just one type of intelligence 2) certain people are gifted in certain areas of intelligence • makes life interesting Criticisms of Multiple Intelligence Theories • g can predict performance on certain tasks and in jobs • cognitive ability scores can predict exceptional attainments • success isn’t just talent • also need to be conscientious, well-connected, and energetic • practice Emotional Intelligence • social intelligence - how to manage oneself successfully in social situations • people with high social intelligence are good at reading social situations and other people • proposed by Edward Thorndike • emotional intelligence • consists of 4 abilities: 1) perceiving emotions • recognizing them in others or in things (ex: music, stories) 2) understanding emotions • predicting them and how they will change

3) managing emotions • knowing how to express them in certain situations 4) using emotions • to enable adaptive or creative thinking • emotionally intelligent people are... • socially aware • self-aware • have higher quality interactions • do somewhat better in jobs • are less taken over by impulses Comparing Theories of Intelligence Theory

Summary

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Other Considerations

Spearman’s general intelligence

a basic intelligence predicts our abilities in varied academic areas

different abilities do have some tendency to correlate

human abilities are too diverse to be put into a single intelligence factor

Thurstone’s primary mental abilities

our intelligence can be broken down into 7 factors

scores for 7 primary mental abilities is more informative than a single g score

these 7 abilities tend to cluster, suggesting an underlying g factor

Gardner’s multiple intelligences

our abilities are best classified by 8 (sometimes 9) independent intelligences

intelligence is more than school smarts; this theory includes other abilities that are equally important

should all these things be called intelligence? or maybe just talents?

Sternberg’s triarchic theory

our intelligence is best classified into 3 areas predicting real-world success

these 3 areas can be reliably measured

these 3 things may share an underlying g factor; the factors may be reliable but do they really predict success? more testing needed

Emotional intelligence

social intelligence and emotional intelligence are key factors in life success

these 4 components can predict social success

does this stretch the concept of intelligence too far?

Assessing Intelligence • intelligence test - assesses people’s mental abilities and compares them to others’ score using a numerical value • 2 types: • achievement tests - reflects learned knowledge • ex: exams in school • aptitude tests - predicts ability to learn new skills

• ex: SATs Early and Modern Tests of Mental Abilities • looked into why people different in mental ability Francis Galton: Belief in Hereditary Genius • wanted to measure “natural ability” so that those with high natural ability would mate with each other • tested reaction time, sensory acuity, muscular power, and body proportions ➡ results did NOT correlate and also didn’t make logical sense Alfred Binet: Predicting School Achievement • French wanted to decide who should have further schooling based on who would get the most out of it • needed a test to determine who would be eligible • by Alfred Binet and Théodore Simon • Binet & Simon’s test • assumed all children develop their intellectual abilities in the same order, but just at different paces • goal: measure the child’s mental age (level of performance associated with a certain age) • did this by asking reasoning and problem solving questions • the test = • ⊕ improved certain children’s education; identified children who needed special attention • ⊖ greatly limited the opportunities of others Lewis Terman: The Innate IQ • some used Binet’s test to measure inherited intelligence • Lewis Terman • adapted Binet’s test • established new age norms • changed the questions to apply to American students • extended the upper end of the test’s range to include adults • renamed Stanford-Binet test • intelligence quotient (IQ) • by William Stern • mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied x100 • average IQ = 100 • NOW, IQ represents one’s performance relative to the average performance of people of the same age • whatever the average score is is randomly assigned to be a score 100 Terman wanted to use the tests to lessen the reproduction of “feeble-mindedness” • • his tests were used on new immigrants & WWI army recruits • the test scores reflected their... • innate mental abilities

• education • native language • familiarity with the culture associated with the test David Wechsler: Separate Scores for Separate Skills • Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) test • by David Wechsler • most widely used individual intelligence test • 15 subtests • ex: similarities, vocabulary, block design, letter-numbering sequencing • gives an overall intelligence score • also gives separate scores for... • verbal comprehension • perceptual organization • working memory • processing speed ➡ differences among these scores can hint at cognitive strengths and weaknesses Principles of Test Construction • to be accepted, psychological tests need to be: 1) standardized 2) reliable 3) valid Standardization • standardization - computing one’s score based on how well or how poorly others did • number of questions answered correctly means nothing • need something to compare it to • scores from a representative group become the basis for future testings • normal curve • the bell-shaped pattern that scores typically fall into (bell curve) • the highest point = the average (100) • each standard deviation above the average will add points to the 100 • each standard deviation below the average will subtract points from the 100 • tests need to be periodically restandardized to keep the average score at 100 • Flynn effect • intelligence test performance has improved over the years • why? • need to develop new mental skills to deal with modern environments • changes in the test • calculated by James Flynn Reliability • reliability - gives consistent scores no matter who takes the test or when they take the test • to check a test’s reliability...

• retest using the same test • if the test and retest agree (correlate) --> test is reliable • split the test in half to see if odd-question scores and even-question scores agree • if they agree (correlate) --> test is reliable ➡ the higher the correlation between the test/retest or the odd/even --> higher the test’s reliability Validity • validity - the extent to which the test actually measures what it says it will measure • content validity - tests that measure certain knowledge • ex: road test, exams in school • predictive validity - tests that predict future performance in a skill • ex: aptitude tests • general aptitude tests are more reliable than predictive • it’s predictive ability lessens in later school years • correlation of performance on tests and performance predicted for school lessens as we get older • because the range of options to predict is smaller • ex: if all people in the room are over 6ft, it will be harder to predict who is on the basketball team because correlation between height and playing basketball is not helpful therefore the predictive value of this information is very small ➡ when we validate a measure using a wide range of scores but then use the results with a small range of score, there is less predictive validity The Dynamics of Intelligence • questions answered in the chapter: • how stable is intelligence over the life span? • what are the traits and talents of those at the low and high extremes of intelligence? Stability or Change? Aging and Intelligence • Phase I: Cross-Sectional Evidence for Intellectual Decline • cross-sectional studies - researchers test and compare people of different ages • results: older adults gave less correct answers on intelligence tests than younger adults ➡ concluded that mental ability declines with age • Phase II: Longitudinal Evidence for Intellectual Stability • longitudinal studies - resting the same group of people over a period of years • results: intelligence remained stable throughout their life, and sometimes even increased ➡ disproved the claim made from Phase I • problem with Phase I was that they had compared people from different generations

• Phase III: It All Depends • problems with Phase II... • the people who lived to the end of the study may have done so because of a higher intelligence or one that was unlikely to decline • intelligence isn’t a single trait; many distinct abilities • certain tests may be harder for older people (doesn’t mean they’re less intelligent) • wisdom tests - assess “expert knowledge about life in general and good judgement and advice about how to conduct oneself in the face of complex, uncertain circumstances” • older people tend to score highly on this • types of intelligence • crystallized intelligence - accumulated knowledge; increases as we age • fluid intelligence - ability to reason quickly and abstractly; decreases as we age • starts to decrease around 20s-30s; more rapidly after 85 • peak @ 30s • ⊖ we lose memory and processing speed as we age • ⊕ we gain vocabulary knowledge as we age • ⊕ decisions become less affected by negative emotions Stability Over the Life Span • attention, processing speed, and learning of infants and toddlers can predict their intelligence scores in later childhood/early adulthood • intelligence tests before 3yo aren’t a guarantee for their future aptitude • at 4yo, tests can predict their adolescent and adult scores • as one ages, their scores become more consistent • Ian Deary - longitudinal study in Scotland • goal: identify children who would benefit from more schooling • tested every child born in 1921 (age 11) • strong correlation between these scores and those of the retest in 2000 (and again in 2010; ages 80 and 90) ➡ showed a stability of intelligence, independent of their life circumstances ➡ showed that intelligent children and adults live healthier and longer • why? 1) intelligence facilitates more education, better jobs, and a healthier environment 2) intelligence encourages healthy living: less smoking, better diet, more exercise 3) prenatal events/early childhood illness may influence both intelligence and health 4) “well-wired” bodies foster intelligence and longevity

Extremes of Intelligence

• comparing the people at the extremes of the intelligence scores will help us determine if the test is valid and significant The Low Extreme • to be diagnosed with an intellectual disability one must have... 1) a low test score • 2 standard deviations below average (~70 or lower) 2) is unable to or has difficulty with living on their own • lacking... • conceptual skills (language, literacy, concepts of money, time, and number) • social skills (interpersonal skills, social responsibility, and ability to follow rules and laws) • practical skills (daily personal care, occupational skill, travel, health care) • because of restandardization, many people who would have been institutionalized decades ago are able to live on their own even though their score is below 70 The High Extreme • many believe that those on the high extreme end of the intelligence score scale are maladjusted • sometimes more isolated, shy, or in their own worlds • still do well socially and in life • some criticize gifted programs because they say it can created self-fulfilling prophecies and promote segregation and prejudge • BUT not helpful to educate all children the same because some have exceptional talents in certain areas which need to be addresses • appropriate placement for children with talents will promote fairness and success Genetic and Environmental Influences on Intelligence • intelligence runs in families • issue: if we inherit differing mental abilities and success is dependent on those abilities, then inborn differences will decide if one will be socioeconomically successful in the future • issue: if mental abilities are based on environment, then children from disadvantaged environments have a better chance of leading disadvantaged lives Twin and Adoption Studies • people who share the same genes share the same mental abilities... • the intelligence scores of identical twins who are raised together = almost the same as the same person taking the test twice • heritability of intelligence can range from 50%-80% • (the extent to which differences in intelligence scores can be due to differences in genes) • identical twins typically share the same abilities in specific talents • identical twins have similar grey and white matter volume in their brains • the areas associated with verbal and spacial intelligence are extremely alike

• their brains show similar activity when doing metal tasks • intelligence is polygenetic • environments have an impact as well... • environmental differences are more predictive of intelligence scores when environments vary widely • adoption increases intelligence scores of mistreated/neglected children • intelligence scores of unrelated siblings of the same age and raised together correlate +.28 • suggests a small influence of a shared environment • mental similarities between adopted children and their adoptive family decreases with age ➡ genetic influences are more apparent than environmental ones • identical twins’ similarities continue into old age Environmental Influences • even if everybody was raised in the same environment, we would have differing mental abilities Early Environmental Influences • J. McVicker Hunt • observed that extreme deprivation was very destructive to native intelligence • began a program of tutored human enrichment for Iranian caregivers • language-fostering games for the infants • successful ➡ findings: poor environmental conditions can depress cognitive development ➡ poverty & malnutrition can deplete cognitive capacity • because the people are worried/distracted by this, diminishing their thinking capacity Schooling and Intelligence • education can boost a child’s chance for success • develops their cognitive and social skills • what will raise intelligence scores? • intensive, high-quality preschool programs • nutritional supplements for pregnant mothers and newborns • interactive reading programs • motivation and belief also have a big impact on intelligence test performance and what we accomplish with our intelligence • Carol Dweck • believes... • intelligence is changeable • intelligence can promote a growth mind-set • praising their effort rather than ability encourages this ➡ they then attribute success to hard work • makes teens more resilient when frustrated • superior achievements = ability + opportunity + disciplined effort

Group Differences in Intelligence Test Scores Gender Similarities and Differences • girls outpace boys in spelling, verbal fluency, locating objects, detecting emotions, and sensitivity to touch, taste, and color • boys outpace girls in spacial ability and complex math problems • there is more variety between intelligence scores of males than of females • Steven Pinker • argued that biology accounts for the differences between males and females for... • priorities • males = things and money • females = people • risk-taking • men = more reckless • math reasoning & spacial ability • these differences are... • observed across cultures • stable over time • influenced by prenatal hormones • observed in transgender children as well • social expectations and differing opportunities also shape boys’ and girls’ differing interests and abilities • ex: in places with gender-equal culture, the difference between boys’ and girls’ abilities is smaller Racial and Ethnic Similarities and Differences • racial and ethnic groups differ in their average intelligence scores • high-scoring people & groups are more likely to have higher levels of education and income • heritability contributes of individual differences, but group differences are primarily environmental • the difference between 2 people in the same group is larger than between 2 people of differing groups • ex: Imani & Rachel • race is not a neatly defined biological category • people may consider themselves part of a racial group, but intellectually compare more with another • when whites and blacks have the same pertinent knowledge, they exhibit similar information-processing skill • cultural differences may account for the racial differences in intelligence scores • schools and culture matter • places with a large wealth gap tend to have a large rich vs. poor intelligence score gap as well • different eras had different ethnic groups experience remarkable achievement • genes stay the same always, but culture changes constantly

➡ hard to attribute intellectual superiority to race (but rather due to culture/ environment) The Question of Bias • 3 perspectives to the debate over racial differences in intelligence 1) there are genetically disposed racial differences in intelligence 2) there are socially influences racial differences in intelligence ☛ 3) there are racial differences in test scores, but the tests are inappropriate or biased Two Meanings of Bias 1) the scientific meaning of bias depends on the test’s validity • major US aptitude tests are not biased because the predictive validity is about the same for men vs. women, different races, and rich vs. poor 2) tests can be biased if performance can be affected by cultural experience • (opposed to only detecting innate differences in intel...