Chapter 1 Psych - Notes PDF

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Psych Chapter 1- Thinking Critically With Psychological Science 1. Research Strategies: How Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions a. The Need for Psychological Science i. Psychology is not necessarily just common sense, but an in depth look into the mechanisms of society and the mind. ii. Critical thinking is often stymied by hindsight, bias, overconfidence, and perceiving patterns in random events. b. Did We Know it All Along? Hindsight Bias i. Hindsight Bias- easy to demonstrate by giving half the members of a group some purported psychological finding, and giving the other half opposite result. 1. First group: “Psychologists have found that a separation weakens romantic attraction… “out of sight, out of mind.” 2. Second group: “Psychologists have found separation strengthens romantic attraction…”Absence makes the heart grow fonder.” ii. “Anything seems commonplace, once explained.” c. Overconfidence i. In general, humans think they know more than they do. d. Perceiving Order in Random Events i. Because chaos and disorder is rather unsettling, we tend to try to find order and structure in things that otherwise have no place being structured. 2. The Scientific Methoda. Constructing Theories i. Theory- “explains behaviors or events by offering ideas that organize observations.” ii. Hypotheses- predictions based on informed understanding of theory. iii. Operational Definitions- a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study 1. Human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures. iv. Replication- repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced. 1. Important in creating a reliable experiement. 2. Meta-analysis- “statistically combines the results of many studies to provide a bottom-line result.” v. Theory is only considered useful if it 1. Organizes observations 2. Implies reductions that anyone can use to check the theory or to derive practical applications (can be replicated)

3. Stimulate further research that leads to a revised theory that the better organizes and predicts vi. .To test and refine theories, use 1. Descriptive methods- “Describe behaviors, often through case studies, surveys, or naturalistic observations.” 2. Correlational methods- “Associate different factors.” 3. Experimental methods-- “manipulate factors to discover their effects.” b. Description i. Through case studies, naturalistic observations, and surveys, scientists can draw conclusions about the people/things they are studying. ii. Case Study 1. A descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles. a. Ex: Brain Damage- “Much of our early knowledge about the brain came from case studies of individuals who suffered particular impairments after damage to a certain brain region.” 2. Sometimes case studies may be misleading, as they cannot give information on all of the members on which the studies applies. iii. Naturalistic Observation 1. A descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation. 2. Freud and Little Hans a. Freud observed a boy named Hanz who had an immense fear of horses. Freud believed that he “felt an unconscious desire for his mother, feared castration by his rival father, and then transferred this fear into a phobia about being bitten by a horse.” 3. Assisted by the presence of technology today. 4. Does not explain behavior, it merely describes it. iv. The Survey 1. Survey- a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group. a. Wording Effects- using certain words in a study can majorly affect studies. b. Random Sampling- a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion. i. surveys must include a diverse amount of participants in order for the survey to be reliable.

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Population- all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn.

Correlation 1. A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other. 2. Correlation coefficient- a statistical index of the relationship between two things (-1 to +1) 3. Variable- anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure. 4. Scatterplot- a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. THe amount of the scatter suggests the strength of the correlation. Illusory Correlation and Regression Toward the Mean 1. Illusory Correlation- perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a strong-than-actual relationship. 2. Regression toward the mean- the tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back toward average. a. Ex: Students who score much lower or higher on an exam than they usually do are likely, when retested, to return to their average. Manipulation 1. Experiments- a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). 2. Experimental Group- in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable 3. Control Group- in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment: contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment. 4. Randomly Assign- assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups. 5. Placebo Effect- experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent. a. Double Blind Procedure- an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participant have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies

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Variables in an experiement 1. Indepentdent variable- in an experiement, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied. 2. Confounding variables- a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study’s results. 3. Dependent Variable- in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated. c. Research Design i. Descriptive- to observe and record behavior through case studies, naturalistic observations, or surveys. ii. Correlational- to detect naturally occuring relationships, to assess how well one variable predicts another, and collect data on two or more variables with no manipulation. iii. Experimental- to explore cause and effect and manipulate one or more factors, use random assignment. iv. “An experiment’s purpose is not to re-create the exact behaviors of everyday life, but to test theoretical principles.” 3. Psychology’s Research Ethics a. Protecting Research Participants i. Animal protection movement- calls for the treatment of animals in scientific experiments to be similar to that of humans. ii. Studying Humans and Protecting Humans 1. “Occasionally, researchers do temporarily stress or deceive people, but only when they believe it is essential to a justifiable end.” 2. Informed consent- giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate. 3. Debriefing- the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants. b. Values in Psychology i. Affect what we study, how we study it, and how we interpret results....