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Soc Psych Ch 10 - Agression...

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CHAPTER 10: AGGRESSION, HURTING OTHERS Even outside war, human beings have an extraordinary capacity for harming one another Cyberbullying – bullying, harassing, or threatening someone using electronic communication such as texting, online social networks, or email -

Often results in negative outcomes such as depression, fear, drug abuse, dropping out of school, poor physical health, and suicide – even years after the bullying occurred

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Most wars are instrumental aggression Adolescents who bully others – either verbally or physically – are also engaged in instrumental aggression, because they often seek to demonstrate their dominance and high status In the strange hierarchy of adolescence, being mean and disliked can sometimes make you popular and revered Most murders are hostile aggression Some murders and many other acts of retribution and sexual coercion, however, are instrumental

WHAT IS AGGRESSION? WHAT ARE SOME THEORIES OF AGGRESSION? Aggression – physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone -

Excludes unintentional harm Excludes actions that may involve pain as an unavoidable side effect of helping someone Includes kicks and slaps, threats and insults, even gossip or snide “digs” Includes ugly confrontational rudeness Includes decisions during experiments about how much to hurt someone Includes destroying property, lying, and other behavior, and other behavior that aims to hurt Aggression includes both physical aggression and social aggression

Biological influences, frustration, and learned behavior Aggression as a Biological Phenomenon Jean-Jacques Rousseau – blames society, not human nature, for social evils Thomas Hobbes – credits society for restraining the human nature Sigmund Freud – aggressive drive is inborn and thus inevitable INSTINCTIVE BEHAVIOR AND EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY -

Physical Aggression – hurting someone else’s body Social Aggression – hurting someone else’s feelings or threatening their relationships . Sometimes called relational aggression, it includes cyberbullying and some forms of inperson bullying -

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Can have serious consequences, with victims suffering from depression and sometimes committing suicide Bullying = “the opposite of well-being”

Lorenz – saw aggression as adaptive rather than selfdestructive -

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Instrumental Aggression – aims to injure, but only as a means to some other end

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Both physical and social aggression can be either hostile or instrumental Most terrorism is instrumental aggression Terrorism is rarely committed by someone with a psychological pathology, instead, terrorists seek personal significance through, for example, attaining hero or martyr status Terrorism is also a strategic tool used during conflict

Aggressive energy is instinctive

Instinctive Behavior – an innate, unlearned behavior pattern exhibited by all members of a species

Hostile Aggression – springs from anger; goal is to injure

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Freud speculated that human aggression springs from a self-destructive impulse It redirects toward others the energy of a primitive death urge (the “death instin ct”)

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If not discharged, it supposedly builds up until it explodes or until and appropriate stimulus “releases” it The idea that aggression in an instinct collapsed as the list of supposed human instincts grew to include nearly every conceivable human behavior The idea that aggression is an instinct fails to account for the variations in aggressiveness from person to person and culture to culture Although aggression is biologically influenced, the human propensity to aggress does not qualify as instinctive behavior Men especially have found aggression adaptive

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CHAPTER 10: AGGRESSION, HURTING OTHERS -

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Purposeful aggression improved the odds of survival and reproduction Aggression often occurs when males are competing with other males Men may also become aggressive when their social status is challenged College me motivated to increase their status were more aggressive toward others in face-to-face confrontations Status-based aggression also helps explain why aggression is highest during adolescence and early adulthood, when the competition for status and mates is the most intense NEURAL INFLUENCES

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Because aggression is a complex behavior, no one spot in the brain controls it The prefrontal cortex, which acts like an emergency brake on deeper brain areas involved in aggressive behavior, was 14% less active than normal in murderers and 15% smaller in anti-social men More aggressive and violent men had smaller amygdala Abnormal brains can contribute to abnormally aggressive behavior Situational factors can also play a role: Sleep deprivation reduces activity in the prefrontal cortex In individuals prone to violence and aggression, poor sleep can lead to violence and aggression

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BIOCHEMICAL INFLUENCES Blood chemistry also influences neural sensitivity to aggressive stimulation ALCOHOL Both laboratory experiments and police data indicate that alcohol unleashes aggression when people are provoked -

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Heredity influences the neural system’s sensitivity to aggressive cues. Aggressiveness varies among individuals Our temperaments—how intense and reactive we are—are partly brought with us into the world, influenced by our sympathetic nervous system’s reactivity A person’s temperament, observed in infancy, usually endures MAOA-L = gene linked to aggression; some even call it the “warrior gene” or the “violence gene” People with the gene showed more activation in the self-control center of their brains after being rejected or insulted, suggesting they were struggling to control their anger They were also more likely to act aggressively when provoked A recipe for aggressive behavior combines the MAOAL gene with childhood maltreatment

Alcohol enhances aggressiveness by reducing people’s self-awareness, by focusing their attention on a provocation, and by people’s mentally associating alcohol with aggression Alcohol predisposes people to interpret ambiguous acts Alcohol deindividuates, and it disinhibits TESTOSTERONE

Hormonal influences appear to be much stronger in lower animals than in humans. But human aggressiveness does correlate with the male sex hormone, testosterone. -

GENETIC INFLUENCES -

Neither “bad” genes nor a “bad” environment alone predisposes later aggressiveness and antisocial behavior; rather, genes predispose some children to be more sensitive and responsive to maltreatment. Nature and nurture interact.

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Drugs that diminish testosterone levels in violent human males will subdue their aggressive tendencies. After people reach age 25, their testosterone levels and rates of violent crime decrease together. Testosterone levels tend to be higher among prisoners convicted of planned and unprovoked violent crimes than of nonviolent crimes Among the normal range of teen boys and adult men, those with high testosterone levels are more prone to delinquency, hard drug use, and aggressive responses to provocation Testosterone, said James Dabbs, “is a small molecule with large effects.” Injecting a man with testosterone won’t automatically make him aggressive, yet men with low testosterone are somewhat less likely to react aggressively when provoked Testosterone is roughly like battery power. Only if the battery levels are very low will things noticeably slow down. POOR DIET

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Those who drank more than 5 cans of nondiet soda a week were more likely to have been violent toward YAS AMER

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CHAPTER 10: AGGRESSION, HURTING OTHERS

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peers, siblings, or dating partners and more likely to have carried a weapon, such as a gun or knife Men and women who consumed more trans fat – also known as hydrogenated oils – were more aggressive To lower aggression, eat a diet high in omega-3 fatty acids, low in trans fat, and without sweetened drinks

FRUSTRATION-AGGRESSION THEORY REVISED -

BIOLOGY AND BEHAVIOR INTERACT The traffic between biology and behavior flows both ways -

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Higher levels of testosterone may cause dominant and aggressive behavior, but dominant and aggressive behavior can also lead to higher testosterone levels Neural, genetic, and biochemical influences predispose some people to react aggressively to conflict and provocation Aggression as a Response to Frustration

Frustration-aggression theory - The theory that frustration triggers a readiness to aggress. Frustration - The blocking of goal-directed behavior. -

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Frustration grows when our motivation to achieve a goal is very strong, when we expected gratification, and when the blocking is complete Cyberbullying is often rooted in frustration, such as after a breakup The aggressive energy need not explode directly against its source aggressive energy need not explode directly against its source. We learn to inhibit direct retaliation, especially when others might disapprove or punish; instead, we displace our hostilities to safer targets

Displacement - The redirection of aggression to a target other than the source of the frustration. Generally, the new target is a safer or more socially acceptable target. -

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displaced aggression is most likely when the target shares some similarity to the instigator and does some minor irritating act that unleashes the displaced aggression When a person is harboring anger from a prior provocation, even a trivial offense—one that would normally produce no response —may elicit an explosive overreaction Outgroup targets are especially vulnerable to displaced aggression

Sometimes frustration increased aggressiveness, sometimes not. For example, if the frustration was understandable—if, as in one experiment, a confederate disrupted a group’s problem solving because his hearing aid malfunctioned (rather than just because he wasn’t paying attention)—then frustration led to irritation, not aggression

Leonard Berkowitz – theorized that frustration produces aggression only when people become upset RELATIVE DEPRIVATION Frustration is not only caused by complete deprivation; more often, frustration arises from the gap between expectations and attainments -

Frustration is often compounded when we compare ourselves with others

Relative Deprivation - The perception that one is less well-off than others with whom one compares oneself. -

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The term relative deprivation was coined by researchers studying the satisfaction felt by American soldiers in World War II One possible source of such frustration today is the affluence depicted in television programs and commercials. In cultures where television is a universal appliance, it helps turn absolute deprivation (lacking what others have) into relative deprivation (feeling deprived). Aggression as Learned Social Behavior

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Learning “pulls” aggression out of us THE REWARDS OF AGGRESSION

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By experience and by observing others, we learn that aggression often pays People, too, can learn the rewards of aggression aggression is instrumental in achieving certain rewards. The same is true of terrorist acts, which enable powerless people to garner widespread attention. “The primary targets of suicide-bombing attacks are not those who are injured but those who are made to witness it through media coverage” Terrorism’s purpose is, with the help of media amplification, to terrorize. Deprived of what Margaret Thatcher called “the oxygen of publicity,” terrorism would surely diminish YAS AMER

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CHAPTER 10: AGGRESSION, HURTING OTHERS OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING Albert Bandura proposed a social learning theory of aggression Social Learning Theory - The theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded and punished.

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He believes that we learn aggression not only by experiencing its payoffs but also by observing others. As with most social behaviors, we acquire aggression by watching others act and noting the consequences.

In Bandura’s famous experiment, children exposed to an adult’s aggression against a Bobo doll became likely to reproduce the observed aggression. -

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children who were not exposed to the aggressive adult model display any aggressive play or talk. Watching the adult’s aggressive behavior lowered their inhibitions. Moreover, the children often reproduced the model’s specific acts and said her words. Observing aggressive behavior had both lowered their inhibitions and taught them ways to aggress Bandura believes that everyday life exposes us to aggressive models in the family, in one’s subculture, and, in the mass media.

WHAT ARE SOME INFLUENCES ON AGGRESSION? AVERSIVE INCIDENTS -

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Physically aggressive children tend to have had physically punitive parents, who disciplined them by modeling aggression with screaming, slapping, and beating These parents often had parents who were themselves physically punitive Such punitive behavior may escalate into abuse, and although most abused children do not become criminals or abusive parents, 30 percent do later abuse their own children—four times the general population rate Even more mild physical punishment, such as spanking, is linked to later aggression Violence often begets violence. THE CULTURE

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The social environment outside the home also provides models. In communities where “macho” images are admired, aggression is readily transmitted to new generations The broader culture also matters. Men from cultures that are nondemocratic, high in income inequality,

Recipes for aggression often include some type of aversive experience: pain, uncomfortable heat, an attack, or overcrowding. PAIN

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THE FAMILY -

focused on teaching men to be warriors, and have gone to war are more likely to behave aggressively than those from cultures with the opposite characteristics People learn aggressive responses both by experience and by observing aggressive models Bandura contended that aggressive acts are motivated by a variety of aversive experiences — frustration, pain, insults . Such experiences arouse us emotionally. But whether we act aggressively depends on the consequences we anticipate. Aggression is most likely when we are aroused and it seems safe and rewarding to aggress.

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not just shocks induced attack; intense heat and “psychological pain”—for example, suddenly not rewarding hungry pigeons that have been trained to expect a grain reward after pecking at a disk— brought the same reaction as shocks. This “psychological pain” is, of course, frustration. Pain heightens aggressiveness in humans aversive stimulation rather than frustration is the basic trigger of hostile aggression. Frustration is certainly one important type of unpleasantness. But any aversive event, whether a dashed expectation, a personal insult, or physical pain, can incite an emotional outburst. Even the torment of a depressed state increases the likelihood of hostile, aggressive behavior. HEAT

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Temporary climate variations can affect behavior. Offensive odors, cigarette smoke, and air pollution have all been linked with aggressive behavior Heat also triggers retaliation in response to an attack or injury and heat leads to aggression only after sensitive people are socially rejected ATTACKS

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Being attacked or insulted by another is especially conducive to aggression Intentional attacks breed retaliatory attacks YAS AMER

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CHAPTER 10: AGGRESSION, HURTING OTHERS AROUSAL -

We can experience an aroused bodily state in different ways The principle: a state of arousal can be interpreted in different ways depending on the context Being physically stirred up does intensify just about any emotion Arousal fuels emotion Sexual arousal and other forms of arousal, such as anger, can therefore amplify one another Love is never so passionate as after a fight or a fright. erotic stimuli are more arousing to people who have just been frightened. Similarly, the arousal of a roller-coaster ride may spill over into romantic feeling for one’s partner. A frustrating, hot, or insulting situation heightens arousal. When it does, the arousal, combined with hostile thoughts and feelings, may form a recipe for aggressive behavior

Media Influences: Pornography and Sexual Violence -

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DISTORTED PERCEPTIONS OF SEXUAL REALITY -

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Aggression Cues -

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violence is more likely when aggressive cues release pent-up anger. The sight of a weapon is such a cue Guns prime hostile thoughts and punitive judgments What’s within sight is within mind. This is especially so when a weapon is perceived as an instrument of violence rather than a recreational item. those who kept a gun in the home (often for protection) were 2.7 times as likely to be murdered— nearly always by a family member or a close acquaintance those with guns in their homes were 3 times more likely to be murdered and twice as likely to commit suicide people with guns at home were 41% more likely to be murdered and 3 times as likely to commit suicide a gun in the home is 12 times more likely to kill a household member than an intruder a gun in the home has often meant the difference between a fight and a funeral, or between suffering and suicide Guns not only serve as aggression cues but also put psychological distance be - tween aggressor and victim. As Milgram’s obedience studies taught us, remoteness from the victim facilitates cruelty. A knife can kill someone, but a knife attack requires a great deal more personal contact than pulling a trigger from a distance

Pornography use is more common among men who are younger, less religious, and who had more sexual partners viewing such fictional scenes of a man overpowering and arousing a woman can (a) distort one’s perceptions of how women actually respond to sexual coercion and (b) increase men’s aggression against women.

those who saw the films with mild sexual violence were more accepting of violence against women . This was especially true if they were aroused by the films exposure to pornography increases acceptance of the rape myth Note that the sexual message (that many women enjoy being “taken”) was subtle and unlikely to elicit counterarguing. Given frequent media images of women’s resistance melting in the arms of a forceful man, we shouldn’t be surprised that even women often believe that some other woman might enjoy being sexually overpowered— though virtually none think it of themselves AGGRESSION AGAINST WOMEN

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Pornography contributes to men’s actual aggression toward women Boys and girls age 10 to 15 who had seen movies, magazines, or websites with violent sexual content were 6 times more likely to be sexually aggressive toward others Exposure to violent pornography increases punitive behavior toward women Media Influences: Television and the Internet MEDIA’S EFFECTS ON BEHAVIOR

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Do viewers imitate violent models? Examples of children reenacting TV violence abound, from the 13year old who killed his 5-year-old sister imitating wrestling moves he’d seen on TV to an Indian boy who died when his brothe...