Cooper Essay Questions 1-29 Answers PDF

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Answers to all essay questions at end of chapters in textbook...

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Ch1 Basic Characteristics of Science 1. Describe the goal of science and the three different levels of investigation. a. The goal of science is to understand, predict and control the environment including behavior. b. There are three levels of scientific investigation description, prediction and control. 2. State and describe the different scientific attitudes. a. An attitude of science is that the universe is based on the principal of determinism. Which means that nothing is random everything has a cause the universe follows rules and laws. Parsimony which means that the simplest answer must be ruled out before a complex answer is considered. Empiricism means that we understand things from the objective observation of events. Experimentation is the controlled comparison of some factor of interest in which one component at a time is changed; so, that we can infer that a change in the dependent variable is the result of the independent variable. Replication means that experiments are repeated to ensure that the same results are found. Philosophic doubt refers to the skepticism that should be present when scientists are reviewing old knowledge or their own findings. 3. Discuss similarities and differences between different perspectives on behavior (i.e. mentalism, radical behaviorism, methodological behaviorism, and structuralism). a. Mentalism and structuralism are similar in that they are both interested in mental processes, and the the assumption of both is that those mental processes affect behavior. While behaviorism seeks to find the causes of behavior outside of the organism. Radical behaviorism is behaviorism that attempts to explain all behavior even behavior which we cannot objectively observe such as thoughts. Methodological behaviorism does not consider events which cannot be observed, those events it considers out of the realm of science. Structuralism is different than mentalism because it does not seek to explain, but instead only describes behavior. 4. Discuss the origin of applied behavior analysis, including early history of the field and defining events of contemporary applied behavior analysis. a. Origin of applied behavior analysis can be found in behaviorism. Which then became experimental behaviorism and finally applied behaviorism. Behaviorism started with Watson who argued that behavior should be the study of observable events. Skinner discussed two types of behaviorism operant and respondent. He named this new branch EAB which created the foundation for how ABA would be approached and considered for years. 5. Compare and contrast the different branches of behavior analysis. a. EAB (experimental) and ABA (applied) have many things in common such as the emphasis on single subject research design, the graphing of data over statistical analysis, and a description of functional theories over formal theory testing. These important commonalties laid the foundation for ABA. ABA was different in that it paid special attention to socially important behaviors. JABA (Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis) was the formal beginning of ABA with the article some current dimensions of applied behavior analysis. 6. State and describe each of the defining dimensions of applied behavior analysis. a. Applied aspect of behavior analysis means that it addresses behaviors which are socially significant to the person. Behavioral precise measurement of the target behavior. Analytic means that that the experimenter or BCBA has demonstrated control over the behavior, they have discovered functional and reliable relationships. Technological all procedures used in the study are described in enough detail that they could be replicated. Conceptual the interventions are derived from relevant principles within ABA. Effective the improvements that have been discovered must be of social significance or practical enough use for the participant. Generality the behaviors should be displayed outside of where they were learned and the skills should spread to other behaviors.

Ch2 Definition of Behavior 1. Discuss the difference between a response and behavior. a. A response is a specific instance of a behavior. 2. Discuss the importance of a functional analysis of behavior over a structural analysis of behavior. a. The function of the behavior is the most important variable because, you can effectively change the behavior by changing the motivating operations or consequences. The structure of the behavior only describes the behavior. 3. Describe the effect of positive and negative reinforcement on subsequent behavior. a. Both positive and negative reinforcement increase the future of the behavior that it followed. 4. Give an example of negative reinforcement. a. Negative Reinforcement consists of removing an adverse stimulus. An example of negative reinforcement would be a child being placed in a dark room which he finds adverse. This adverse reaction is indicated in his tears and requests to exit. He then politely asks to be removed from the room. And he is quickly removed from the room. When he finds himself in another dark and uncomfortable situation he politely asks to be removed from the situation. 5. Discuss the difference between a principle of behavior and a behavior-change tactic. a. A principle of behavior describes how the behavior change tactics are possible. Explaining RF, punishment and extinction. It explains how to generalize and how these behaviors change over time. A behavior change tactic is different it is how the RF will be applied or punishment carried out. It is the technological dimension of ABA. 6. Discuss the difference between conditioned and unconditioned reinforcers. a. Conditioned Reinforcers are RF that we have learned to find RFing through paring with UCRF. UCRF are RF which a person, or species finds RF without a history of paring or learning. 7. Describe the effect punishment contingencies have on subsequent behavior. a. Punishment always results in lower rates of behavior. 8. State an example of stimulus control. a. Stimulus control means that you respond in the presence of a stimulus and you do not respond in its absence. You may only check the mail once at 4:00 PM because that is when the mailman has stopped by in the past, and checking before 4:00 pm does not result in RF (the mail). 9. What effects do motivating operations have on reinforcers? a. Motivating Operations can alter the value of reinforcement or punishment. Deprivation can increase the value of some RF and satiation can decrease the value of some RF. This can also affect the strength of punishment. 10. Using an example from applied settings, construct a three-term contingency. a. Antecedent: Susan’s teacher gave an instruction, Behavior: Susan began to get out of her seat Consequence: Susan was asked to go to the principal’s office. 11. Diagram an example of respondent conditioning. Identify and label the following: unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, neutral response, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response. a. Pavlov’s dog: UCS Food – UCR – Salvation, CS Bell – CR Salvation 12. Classify the following behaviors as respondent or operant: Talking - operant Walking – respondent Baby's grasp respondent Salivation at the smell of food respondent Baking a cake operant Pupil constriction respondent Thinking about music operant Playing the piano operant Withdrawing hand from a fire Ch3 Assessment in Applied Behavior Analysis 1. How does behavioral assessment differ from educational or psychological assessment? a. A behavioral assessment attempts to collect observable data from the client. It concentrates more on the how answers and less on the why. 2. Describe one of the competencies of an applied behavior analyst.

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a. An applied behavior analyst should be able to analyze data, select outcome measures, plan and evaluate those plans. Describe one of the four major assessment methods used in behavior analysis. a. Interviewing significant others and learning under which conditions does the target behavior frequently occur. Identify one reason social validity has become a major focus of applied behavior analysis. a. Social validity has become a major focus in applied behavior analysis because those behaviors will have the most impact on the person receiving treatment. Often behaviors that have high levels of social validity generate more RF in client’s lives and gain access to less restrictive social environments. Describe the relevance of behavior rule and briefly explain how it can be used to identify socially significant behavior. a. The relevance of behavior rule means that you should not teach a behavior which will not get rewarded in a real world setting. This relates to social significance because we want the behaviors which will gain reinforcement and are considered appropriate by most people. What is the first question to ask when prioritizing potential target behaviors and why should it be asked first? a. Which of these behaviors decreases the person’s risk of harm? That is the behavior which should be worked on first. Explain one research benefit of explicit, well-written definitions in applied behavior analysis. a. One benefit of explicit well written research is that it allows for replication. What are two features of a function-based behavior definition? a. Function based definition asks what effect does the behavior have on the environment, and what is the result of that behavior. Describe one benefit to setting the criteria for behavior change prior to initiating intervention. a. One benefit is we know when the program should be terminated.

Ch4 Definition of Measurement 1. Describe one of the functions of measurement for practitioners of applied behavior analysis. a. One function of measurement is to operationalize empiricism, so that science is not opinion and guess work. 2. Define the three fundamental dimensional qualities of behavior. a. Repeatability, temporal locus, and temporal extent. Repeatability seeks to determine can the behavior be counted. Temporal extent the duration of the behavior, and temporal locus when did the behavior occur. 3. Describe a one-time sampling procedure for measuring behavior and the appropriate conditions for using that procedure. a. A one-time sampling procedure could be whole interval recording. In whole interval recording the behavior is recorded as having occurred if the behavior occurred throughout the entire interval. 4. Describe three advantages of measuring behavior by permanent product. a. It frees up the therapist’s time to attend to other things, often it is more accurate information collected, and easier to determine treatment integrity in data collection. 5. Give two reasons for the increasing popularity of computer-assisted measurement systems. a. You can record and keep track of multiple events across different times, programs are easier to learn and use. 6. John, a fourth-grade teacher, wants to collect data on task completion for seven of his students. John has 34 students and does not have access to an aide or teaching assistant. Identify the most appropriate recording procedure for John to use and explain why it is the best choice. a. He should use permanent product because he can check that later after the students are done and he will be able to discern weather or not they have understood the material. Ch5 Improving and Assessing the Quality of Behavioral Measurement

1. Discuss the difference between accuracy and reliability as they relate to behavioral data and suggest methods to evaluate both. a. Accuracy asks does the data that was collected truly reflect what happened. Reliability asks is the data collected in the same manner and easily reproducible. 2. Describe threats to measurement validity in applied behavior analysis. Suggest ways to control for the threats you describe. a. Threats to validity, are threats to weather the tool used to measure is a valid depiction of the pertinent variables. Measuring a dimension of the behavior which is not relevant or reprehensive of the behavior. Poorly scheduled observation time or an artifact from the way that the behavior was measured. Ways to reduce this, is to measure frequently and under the conditions in which the socially significant behaviors are likely to be displayed. 3. Describe ways applied behavior analysis researchers can control for human error before, during, and after data collection. a. ABA can control for human error by making sure that staff are trained to an objective standard of reporting. Training should be ongoing to reduce observer drift. In addition, the BCBA should be careful in their evaluation of the data. By not presenting a certain bias toward certain data sets. 4. Discuss a training strategy you might use for data collectors/observers. a. I would train frequently and conduct frequent observations during sessions so that my presence became a normal occurrence. I would also correct during these observations and have frequent discussions about observer drift, I would not include what I thought the data should look like. 5. Discuss the role of collecting interobserver agreement measures in applied behavior analysis research. List various methods for assessing agreement for event recording and interval recordings of behavioral data. a. Interobserver agreement is the degree to which two or more observers report the same value for recording the same events. There should be at least 80% agreement between the observers and the observations have to be conducted for at least 20% of the experiment. For event recording total count is used in this method: the total behaviors indicated by each observer are indicated and then the smaller number / larger number to get the percentage. Mean count per an interval could also work, along with exact count per interval. For studies, which use interval recording the best methods would be interval by interval, scored interval and unscored interval. In these methods, the intervals which are in agreement are scored.

Chapter 6: Constructing and Interpreting Graphic Displays of Behavioral Data 1. State a purpose and a benefit of using graphic displays of behavioral data for decision-making over listing a series of numbers in a tabular format. a. Graphic displays are easy to learn and provide a conservative method for looking at behavior change. It is often easier to see the patterns in a graphic display than in a number listing. 2. Describe a benefit of using visual analysis over statistical analysis in interpreting the social significance of behavior change. a. Visual analysis is a more conservative measure. In addition, it does not set a predetermined level of change instead it is a tool designed to look and interpret effective change which makes a difference for the person. 3. List and describe the parts of a basic line graph. a. A line graph is comprised of a y and x axis. Points on the plane represent the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. The change or dependent variable is always represented on the y-axis. 4. Discuss why a line graph is often the most appropriate format for communicating changes in level, trend, and the variability of behavioral data when comparing the effects of intervention, A to intervention B.

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a. A line graph is the most appropriate form of commutating information because the information is easy to read and can be easily separated by condition change lines. Discuss a situation in which a cumulative record would be preferable to a basic line graph. a. A cumulative record would be useful if you are interested in determining how the client has progressed snice the start of the intervention. Discuss a situation in which a scatterplot would be the most appropriate graphic format. a. A scatterplot would be most appropriate if you were interested in what time the behavior typically occurred, and under what daily conditions. State a benefit of the semilogarithmic chart, such as the Standard Celeration Chart, over an equal interval chart when celeration is of interest. a. With an equal interval chart the distance between points is measured in real numbers. However, a celebration chart is different in that it looks at the proportional difference. Regardless of the actual distance 50% increases or decreases appear the same, it is about the proportion of change. If you are interested in precision teaching where learning is most often noted when there are proportional changes, then Standard Celeration Chart would be the best option. Which type of graph would you select to communicate changes in behavior when the behavior can only occur or not occur one time during a measurement period? a. A bar graph would work to communicate those changes in behavior. Define the following fundamental properties of behavior change: variability, level, and trend. a. Variability the frequency and degree to which the behavior changes, the more variability the less control of the independent variable. Level refers to the value of the data points that are converging around the y axis, or what is the mean. Trend the overall direction of the data points, steep, stable etc.

Ch7 Analyzing Behavior Change: Basic Assumptions and Strategies 1. Discuss the basic assumption scientists hold about the universe. a. The universe is a predictable place, with laws and rules, determinism. 2. Discuss how experimental control, the highest level of scientific understanding, is achieved in a single-subject research design. a. Experimental Control is achieved through a change in behavior which can be stopped, started and reversed based on the application of the intervention or independent variable. 3. Discuss how behavior analysts approach variability in their data. a. Behavior analysts consider variability to be the result of the external environment, this view is different than the rest of psychology. BAs attempt to search for the reason for the variability. When they create treatments, they seek out those which are robust enough to overcome variability. 4. List the essential components of experiments in behavior analysis. a. The essential components are at least one subject, at least one behavior, a treatment condition or independent variable. A system for measuring and seeing the data visually. 5. What provides the basis for comparison in single-subject experimental designs? a. In a single-subject experiment the subject is used as their own control. Then when the independent variable is applied or the treatment is used and withdrawn and the change in behavior is noted. 6. Discuss two reasons an experimenter might measure multiple behaviors within one single-subject study a. Studying two or more behaviors allows for one of the behaviors to be a control within the experiment, as the other behavior is getting the treatment. When the effects of the independent variable can be replicated with different behaviors it indicates the strength of the independent variable. 7. Discuss the importance of the following "fundamental rule of experimentation" as it relates to the demonstration of a functional relationship between a dependent and independent variable: "Change only one variable at a time." a. It is essential so that a causal relationship between the independent variable and dependent variable can be determined. 8. Discuss one scientific benefit and one applied benefit of establishing a baseline level of responding.

a. By establishing baseline level responding we provide an objective basis for detecting change, and we also indicate the behavior should be considered for therapy. 9. Draw the following from the written description provided: a. (a) Baseline: High level, stable, no trend b. (b) Baseline: Low level, stable, no trend c. (c) Baseline: Slightly increasing, high variability d. (d) Baseline: Decreasing variable trend 10. List and describe the three components of baseline logic (also known as "experimental reasoning") used in single-subject research designs. a. Prediction suggests given the stable responding, it appears that without treatment the responding would remain the same. Verification confirms prediction in indicating that if it would ...