Cooper chapter 1 & 2 PDF

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CHAPTER 1:

Science -

A systematic approach for seeking and organizing knowledge about the natural world o Science is how we obtain knowledge about the world. How we figure out how things happen. Science is a way of knowing. o Other ways of knowing?  Experience, learning from other people, information from authority, etc

Purpose of Science -

To achieve a thorough understanding of the phenomena under study To uncover nature’s truths (the real truths) Not about politics, or particular viewpoints, not what you want to believe

Levels of Understanding in Science (Power Hierarchy) 1.

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Description: describing what we see a. Just collecting facts; very detailed descriptions of what is going on. These descriptions give us ideas and help us figure out what goes together and provide information we can use to gain more understanding. Can suggest research questions. b. Systematic observation of events c. Observe events (collect facts) quantify, classify and examine those facts for possible relations with other known facts d. Why? May suggest hypotheses or research questions e. Ex: If you observe a child that throws himself on the floor when math begins Prediction: can we make a prediction of what will happen a. Repeated observations: find relationships between events b. If Event A then Event B is more likely/If Event A then Event B is less likely i. Correlations between events (does not mean causation) ii. Suggest possible causal relations to examine (Does A actually cause B? Run an experiment to confirm) c. Prediction does permit preparation. It is useful because if you predict something is going to happen, then you can prepare for something. Control: can we control the presents or the variables a. Highest level of scientific understanding b. Identify functional relations i. Relation between IV and DV  Exercise (IV) = increased heart rate (DV) ii. If vary IV, will get change in DV and that change in DV was not likely due to other variables (confound: another possible explanation for your results) c. We often speak about causation i. Event A causes Event B d. Important to remember: i. Nearly impossible to rule out all other possible causes ii. So functional relations are also correlations, may find out that there is another causal variable iii. Co-relating events (Johnston & Pennypecker, 1993)

“Science is first of all a set of attitudes.” – BF Skinner Attitudes of Science -

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Determinism: there is an order to the world. Everything happens for a reason. o The universe operates in a lawful and orderly manner. Reasons for every behavior occurrence. o Events occur as a result of other events  Not accidentalism (doesn't occur by accident), not fatalism (pre-determined reasons for behavior) o Assume lawfulness and then look for lawful relations Empiricism: being scientific, being objective with measurement and observation o Objective observation, not about subject thoughts, or beliefs. Can't see your thoughts o Need to be able to objectively measurement. Systematic and repeated measurement o To gain an understanding of the phenomenon under study – need objective measures Experimentation: being able to control variables o Controlling variables: systematic changes in IV, measure DV o Carefully conducted comparison of the DV under two or more conditions (IV) that differ in only one factor at a time

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Replication o Repeat the experiment o Repeat the IV manipulation within an experiment  Take treatment in and out o About reliability of the findings, ask yourself: will you get the same result again? Parsimony: use the fewest explanations and most probable explanations o Occam’s Razor o Medicine: if you are in Manhattan and you hear hoof beats, think horses—not zebras o First examine the simple explanations, if those are not adequate, then you move onto the more complex o Choose the explanation with fewest assumptions  If the explanation doesn't fit in, then move up and experiment more Philosophic Doubt o Scientific knowledge is always tentative. Things change. Be open to new ideas. o New techniques, new discoveries may show that previous facts, may not be true. o So, we must be always willing to question. Be skeptical. o No belief should be held above facts that are discovered.

Applied Behavior Analysis -

Three major branches of behavior analysis o 1. Behaviorism: philosophy of the science of behavior  Behavior is as a result of experience  People are blank slates (tabula rasa) o 2. Experimental Analysis of Behavior: basic lab research o 3. Applied Behavior Analysis  A technology for improving behavior  Can only be understood in the context of the philosophy, basic research traditions and findings  Applied = real world; applying all of our knowledge to real world problems

Development of ABA -

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Early 1900s: psychology about study of consciousness and mental processes Then Watson: o Subject matter should be observable behavior o Early form of behaviorism: S-R psychology  Stimulus-Response psychology (Little Albert) o Created foundation for study of behavior as a natural science Then Skinner: o The Behavior of Organisms (1938/1966) o He started the experimental branch of behavior analysis (EAB) o Two types of behavior:  Respondent (study of reflexes, S-R psychology, Pavlovian)  Reflexive behavior, elicited behavior  Reflex: eliciting stimulus and corresponding response. Involuntary. Occurs when sensory organ is stimulated. Puff of air in your face makes you blink.  Operant (study of consequences)  All about consequences. Behavior is shaped by consequences.  Three term contingency (S-R-S model)  Current behavior is influenced by stimulus changes (consequences) that have followed the behavior in the past o Whatever you see now is occurring because of what has happened in the past. All consequences influence future behavior.

EAB -

Skinner named this branch of science. Outlined specific methodology for it practice. Examined rate of response as DV. Repeated or continuous measurement of careful defined response classes. Within-subject comparisons (not group designs) Visual analysis of graphed data (not much statistical analyses). We use these to determine if there is a functional relation. Discovered and verified basic principles of operant behavior. Applied these principles of behavior to real people. Same principles still guide EAB and behavior analysis

Radical VS Methodological Behaviorism -

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Radical behaviorism: o Attempts to explain all behavior, including internal and private events such as thinking and feeling o Human skin is not a boundary. External and internal events are behavioral. Methodological behaviorism o If you cannot observe the behavior, then outside the real of science o The human skin is a boundary. If not seen, then it it is outside of the realm.

Mentalism -

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Behavior is mediated by mental processes. Mentalistic explanations for behavior rather than considering the environment. o “He can't read because he has autism” o “He chooses to be non-compliant” A mental or inner dimension exists that differs from behavioral dimension. That dimension: phenomena in that dimension either cause or mediate some form of behavior. Hypothetical constructs and explanatory fictions o Hypothetical construct: a hypothetical thing as a cause for something  Intelligence is a hypothetical construct Very dominant in western culture (e.g., Freud, Piaget) Guard against these beliefs as a behavior analyst Explanatory fiction: o An explanation that is really a fictitious variable that is simply another name for the observed behavior o Contributes nothing toward understanding the variables responsible for developing or maintaining behavior o Circular view of cause and effect

Structuralism -

Describes the structure of the situation. Nothing about manipulating anything. Simply describing behavior and not concerned about identifying the function. Restricts activities to descriptions of behavior. No scientific manipulations. Not concerned with causal explanations. No asking “why does he engage in…” or “what’s the function…”

Development of ABA -

Formal start of ABA in 1968 JABA began in 1968

CHAPTER 2

What is behavior? (Pennypacker) -

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“Behavior of an organism” o Living beings “Portion of the organisms interaction with the environment” o Need to have both an organism and the environment o Need to have an interaction between them “Displacement in space through time” o The organism needs to move (sitting quietly is not a behavior) o Needs to pass the Dead Man’s Test (if a dead man can do it, it isn’t behavior. And if a dead man can't do it, it is behavior) o Dimensions of displacement  Temporal locus: when in time the behavior occurs (e.g., tantrum at 9:00pm)  Temporal extent: the duration of the behavior (e.g., the tantrum lasted for 60 minutes)  Repeatability: the frequency with which the specified behavior occurs over time (e.g., the tantrum occurs every night at 9:00pm for the 14 days of measurement) “That results in a measureable change in at least one aspect of the environment” o Changes the environment in some way. Response must affect the environment.

Behavior VS Response -

Response is a general topography of a behavior, the actual instance of the behavior. Behavior is more general. Getting dressed = behavior, response = putting on specific articles of clothing

Topography VS Function -

Topography is how the behavior looks, function is the cause of the behavior

Response Class -

Different form of responses that lead to the same effect on the environment Slamming, closing, pushing door closed all lead to the door being closed

Repertoire -

All behaviors included in a typical skills set Tacting repertoire, math repertoire, etc…

Environment -

“Everything except the moving parts of the organism involved in the behavior…”

Stimulus -

“An energy change that affects an organism through its receptor cells” Usually when talking about the environment, we are talking about particular aspects of the environment (stimulus conditions) o Internal and external stimulus changes can affect changes in behavior o E.g., being sick affects our work productivity

Stimulus Class -

Group of stimuli that share common features o Physical features (formal dimensions): such as size, color, intensity o Temporal features: relative to the behavior. Did the behavior occur before or after the behavior?  Before the behavior: antecedent stimulus event  After the behavior: consequence event o Functional features: effect on behavior  Immediate but temporary increase or decrease in behavior frequency  EOs, MOs, satiation/deprivation  Delayed but relatively permanent effect on future frequency

Two types of behavior -

Respondent behavior: behavior that is elicited by antecedent stimuli o Behavior is brought out by the stimulus  Salivation is brought out by food o Reflexive behavior. Can be modified.

Changing respondent behavior -

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Habituation: present eliciting stimulus repeatedly = behavior will decrease o If present a loud tone = startle response o If present that loud tone 50 times = no startle response o Living near an airport = getting used to hearing them after living there for awhile that you don't even notice them Respondent conditioning: response is elicited by a different stimulus = learned associations between stimuli o Pavlov: classical conditioning

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 Pair an eliciting stimulus, such as food, response is salivation Respondent extinction: after conditioning, present the CS repeatedly without the US, the CS will no longer elicit a CR  Repeatedly present bell without food = no more salivation Higher order conditioning: once a CS is established, can elicit a CR, that CS can be used to condition a new CS, so conditioning without a US  Being bit by a dog = fear of dogs  HOC: seeing a dog at a park = fear response = fear of parks

Operant Behavior -

All about the consequences of behavior Ability to alter the future frequency of behavior based on the previous consequences of that behavior Respondent behavior: genetically determined, fixed set of responses that can be altered by stimulus-stimulus pairing Operant behavior: selected, shaped and maintained by previous consequences

Selection by Consequences -

The ability to be reinforced and have operant conditioning work is a product of natural selection. Learning from consequences lead to those who can survive. The results of an evolutionary process at a social or cultural level. This selection by consequences is an automatic process. Unaware that is happening. Unaware of the consequences of your behavior. Consequences alter future behaviors and are a constant shaping process. Behavior occurs (there are consequences) those consequences determine the future frequency

Important Points -

Reponses classes are selected (not individual responses) Timing is everything o Consequences will select the behavior that it follows closely in time (within seconds) Reinforcement and punishment are principles of behavior The designation of aversive or appetite is also functional: o If contingent presentation of stimulus = increase behavior (appetitive stimulus) Reinforcers and punishers can be conditioned or unconditioned...